Maintenance of RNA-DNA hybrid length in bacterial RNA polymerases

Structural basis for control of bacterial RNA polymerase pausing by a riboswitch and its ligand

Folding of nascent transcripts can be modulated by the RNA polymerase (RNAP) that carries out their transcription, and vice versa. A pause of RNAP during transcription of a preQ1 riboswitch (termed que-PEC) is stabilized by a previously characterized template consensus sequence and the ligand-free conformation of the nascent RNA. Ligand binding to the riboswitch induces RNAP pause release and downstream transcription termination; however, the mechanism by which riboswitch folding modulates pausing is unclear. Here, we report single-particle cryo-electron microscopy reconstructions of que-PEC in ligand-free and ligand-bound states. In the absence of preQ1, the RNA transcript is in an unexpected hyper-translocated state, preventing downstream nucleotide incorporation. Strikingly, on ligand binding, the riboswitch rotates around its helical axis, expanding the surrounding RNAP exit channel and repositioning the transcript for elongation. Our study reveals the tight coupling by which nascent RNA structures and their ligands can functionally regulate the macromolecular transcription machinery.

Mechanism of transcription initiation and primer generation at the mitochondrial replication origin OriL

The intricate process of human mtDNA replication requires the coordinated action of both transcription and replication machineries. Transcription and replication events at the lagging strand of mtDNA prompt the formation of a stem-loop structure (OriL) and the synthesis of a ∼25 nt RNA primer by mitochondrial RNA polymerase (mtRNAP). The mechanisms by which mtRNAP recognizes OriL, initiates transcription, and transfers the primer to the replisome are poorly understood. We found that transcription initiation at OriL involves slippage of the nascent transcript. The transcript slippage is essential for initiation complex stability and its ability to translocate the mitochondrial DNA polymerase gamma, PolG, which pre-binds to OriL, downstream of the replication origin thus allowing for the primer synthesis. Our data suggest the primosome assembly at OriL-a complex of mtRNAP and PolG-can efficiently generate the primer, transfer it to the replisome, and protect it from degradation by mitochondrial endonucleases.

Structure and function of the N-terminal domain of the yeast telomerase reverse transcriptase

The elongation of single-stranded DNA repeats at the 3′-ends of chromosomes by telomerase is a key process in maintaining genome integrity in eukaryotes. Abnormal activation of telomerase leads to uncontrolled cell division, whereas its down-regulation is attributed to ageing and several pathologies related to early cell death. Telomerase function is based on the dynamic interactions of its catalytic subunit (TERT) with nucleic acids—telomerase RNA, telomeric DNA and the DNA/RNA heteroduplex. Here, we present the crystallographic and NMR structures of the N-terminal (TEN) domain of TERT from the thermotolerant yeast Hansenula polymorpha and demonstrate the structural conservation of the core motif in evolutionarily divergent organisms. We identify the TEN residues that are involved in interactions with the telomerase RNA and in the recognition of the ‘fork’ at the distal end of the DNA product/RNA template heteroduplex. We propose that the TEN domain assists telomerase biological function and is involved in restricting the size of the heteroduplex during telomere repeat synthesis.

The Mechanisms of Substrate Selection, Catalysis, and Translocation by the Elongating RNA Polymerase

Multi-subunit DNA-dependent RNA polymerases synthesize all classes of cellular RNAs, ranging from short regulatory transcripts to gigantic messenger RNAs. RNA polymerase has to make each RNA product in just one try, even if it takes millions of successive nucleotide addition steps. During each step, RNA polymerase selects a correct substrate, adds it to a growing chain, and moves one nucleotide forward before repeating the cycle. However, RNA synthesis is anything but monotonous: RNA polymerase frequently pauses upon encountering mechanical, chemical and torsional barriers, sometimes stepping back and cleaving off nucleotides from the growing RNA chain. A picture in which these intermittent dynamics enable processive, accurate, and controllable RNA synthesis is emerging from complementary structural, biochemical, computational, and single-molecule studies. Here, we summarize our current understanding of the mechanism and regulation of the on-pathway transcription elongation. We review the details of substrate selection, catalysis, proofreading, and translocation, focusing on rate-limiting steps, structural elements that modulate them, and accessory proteins that appear to control RNA polymerase translocation.

The cutting edge of archaeal transcription

The archaeal RNA polymerase (RNAP) is a double-psi β-barrel enzyme closely related to eukaryotic RNAPII in terms of subunit composition and architecture, promoter elements and basal transcription factors required for the initiation and elongation phase of transcription. Understanding archaeal transcription is, therefore, key to delineate the universally conserved fundamental mechanisms of transcription as well as the evolution of the archaeo-eukaryotic transcription machineries. The dynamic interplay between RNAP subunits, transcription factors and nucleic acids dictates the activity of RNAP and ultimately gene expression. This review focusses on recent progress in our understanding of (i) the structure, function and molecular mechanisms of known and less characterized factors including Elf1 (Elongation factor 1), NusA (N-utilization substance A), TFS4, RIP and Eta, and (ii) their evolution and phylogenetic distribution across the expanding tree of Archaea.

Non-programmed transcriptional frameshifting is common and highly RNA polymerase type-dependent

Background

The viral or host systems for a gene expression assume repeatability of the process and high quality of the protein product. Since level and fidelity of transcription primarily determines the overall efficiency, all factors contributing to their decrease should be identified and optimized. Among many observed processes, non-programmed insertion/deletion (indel) of nucleotide during transcription (slippage) occurring at homopolymeric A/T sequences within a gene can considerably impact its expression. To date, no comparative study of the most utilized Escherichia coli and T7 bacteriophage RNA polymerases (RNAP) propensity for this type of erroneous mRNA synthesis has been reported. To address this issue we evaluated the influence of shift-prone A/T sequences by assessing indel-dependent phenotypic changes. RNAP-specific expression profile was examined using two of the most potent promoters, P_araBAD of E. coli and φ10 of phage T7.

Results

Here we report on the first systematic study on requirements for efficient transcriptional slippage by T7 phage and cellular RNAPs considering three parameters: homopolymer length, template type, and frameshift directionality preferences. Using a series of out-of-frame gfp reporter genes fused to a variety of A/T homopolymeric sequences we show that T7 RNAP has an exceptional potential for generating frameshifts and is capable of slipping on as few as three adenine or four thymidine residues in a row, in a flanking sequence-dependent manner. In contrast, bacterial RNAP exhibits a relatively low ability to baypass indel mutations and requires a run of at least 7 tymidine and even more adenine residues. This difference comes from involvement of various intrinsic proofreading properties. Our studies demonstrate distinct preference towards a specific homopolymer in slippage induction. Whereas insertion slippage performed by T7 RNAP (but not deletion) occurs tendentiously on poly(A) rather than on poly(T) runs, strong bias towards poly(T) for the host RNAP is observed.

Conclusions

Intrinsic RNAP slippage properties involve trade-offs between accuracy, speed and processivity of transcription. Viral T7 RNAP manifests far greater inclinations to the transcriptional slippage than E. coli RNAP. This possibly plays an important role in driving bacteriophage adaptation and therefore could be considered as beneficial. However, from biotechnological and experimental viewpoint, this might create some problems, and strongly argues for employing bacterial expression systems, stocked with proofreading mechanisms.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12934-018-1034-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

NMR Structural Profiling of Transcriptional Intermediates Reveals Riboswitch Regulation by Metastable RNA Conformations

Gene repression induced by the formation of transcriptional terminators represents a prime example for the coupling of RNA synthesis, folding, and regulation. In this context, mapping the changes in available conformational space of transcription intermediates during RNA synthesis is important to understand riboswitch function. A majority of riboswitches, an important class of small metabolite-sensing regulatory RNAs, act as transcriptional regulators, but the dependence of ligand binding and the subsequent allosteric conformational switch on mRNA transcript length has not yet been investigated. We show a strict fine-tuning of binding and sequence-dependent alterations of conformational space by structural analysis of all relevant transcription intermediates at single-nucleotide resolution for the I-A type 2'dG-sensing riboswitch from Mesoplasma florum by NMR spectroscopy. Our results provide a general framework to dissect the coupling of synthesis and folding essential for riboswitch function, revealing the importance of metastable states for RNA-based gene regulation.

Transcription elongation. Heterogeneous tracking of RNA polymerase and its biological implications

Regulation of transcription elongation via pausing of RNA polymerase has multiple physiological roles. The pausing mechanism depends on the sequence heterogeneity of the DNA being transcribed, as well as on certain interactions of polymerase with specific DNA sequences. In order to describe the mechanism of regulation, we introduce the concept of heterogeneity into the previously proposed alternative models of elongation, power stroke and Brownian ratchet. We also discuss molecular origins and physiological significances of the heterogeneity.

Visualizing translocation dynamics and nascent transcript errors in paused RNA polymerases in vivo

BACKGROUND

Transcription elongation is frequently interrupted by pausing signals in DNA, with downstream effects on gene expression. Transcription errors also induce prolonged pausing, which can lead to a destabilized genome by interfering with DNA replication. Mechanisms of pausing associated with translocation blocks and misincorporation have been characterized in vitro, but not in vivo.

RESULTS

We investigate the pausing pattern of RNA polymerase (RNAP) in Escherichia coli by a novel approach, combining native elongating transcript sequencing (NET-seq) with RNase footprinting of the transcripts (RNET-seq). We reveal that the G-dC base pair at the 5' end of the RNA-DNA hybrid interferes with RNAP translocation. The distance between the 5' G-dC base pair and the 3' end of RNA fluctuates over a three-nucleotide width. Thus, the G-dC base pair can induce pausing in post-translocated, pre-translocated, and backtracked states of RNAP. Additionally, a CpG sequence of the template DNA strand spanning the active site of RNAP inhibits elongation and induces G-to-A errors, which leads to backtracking of RNAP. Gre factors efficiently proofread the errors and rescue the backtracked complexes. We also find that pausing events are enriched in the 5' untranslated region and antisense transcription of mRNA genes and are reduced in rRNA genes.

CONCLUSIONS

In E. coli, robust transcriptional pausing involves RNAP interaction with G-dC at the upstream end of the RNA-DNA hybrid, which interferes with translocation. CpG DNA sequences induce transcriptional pausing and G-to-A errors.

A dual switch controls bacterial enhancer-dependent transcription

Bacterial RNA polymerases (RNAPs) are targets for antibiotics. Myxopyronin binds to the RNAP switch regions to block structural rearrangements needed for formation of open promoter complexes. Bacterial RNAPs containing the major variant σ(54) factor are activated by enhancer-binding proteins (bEBPs) and transcribe genes whose products are needed in pathogenicity and stress responses. We show that (i) enhancer-dependent RNAPs help Escherichia coli to survive in the presence of myxopyronin, (ii) enhancer-dependent RNAPs partially resist inhibition by myxopyronin and (iii) ATP hydrolysis catalysed by bEBPs is obligatory for functional interaction of the RNAP switch regions with the transcription start site. We demonstrate that enhancer-dependent promoters contain two barriers to full DNA opening, allowing tight regulation of transcription initiation. bEBPs engage in a dual switch to (i) allow propagation of nucleated DNA melting from an upstream DNA fork junction and (ii) complete the formation of the transcription bubble and downstream DNA fork junction at the RNA synthesis start site, resulting in switch region-dependent RNAP clamp closure and open promoter complex formation.

Factor-independent transcription pausing caused by recognition of the RNA-DNA hybrid sequence

RNA polymerase pausing during transcription is implicated in controlling gene expression. This study identifies a new type of pausing mechanism, by which the RNAP core recognizes the shape of base pairs of the RNA–DNA hybrid, which determines the rate of translocation and the nucleotide addition cycle. The expression of a number of viral and bacterial genes is shown to be subject to this mechanism.

Pausing of transcription is an important step of regulation of gene expression in bacteria and eukaryotes. Here we uncover a factor-independent mechanism of transcription pausing, which is determined by the ability of the elongating RNA polymerase to recognize the sequence of the RNA–DNA hybrid. We show that, independently of thermodynamic stability of the elongation complex, RNA polymerase directly ‘senses' the shape and/or identity of base pairs of the RNA–DNA hybrid. Recognition of the RNA–DNA hybrid sequence delays translocation by RNA polymerase, and thus slows down the nucleotide addition cycle through ‘in pathway' mechanism. We show that this phenomenon is conserved among bacterial and eukaryotic RNA polymerases, and is involved in regulatory pauses, such as a pause regulating the production of virulence factors in some bacteria and a pause regulating transcription/replication of HIV-1. The results indicate that recognition of RNA–DNA hybrid sequence by multi-subunit RNA polymerases is involved in transcription regulation and may determine the overall rate of transcription elongation.

Regulation of gene expression by reiterative transcription

Gene regulation involves many different types of transcription control mechanisms, including mechanisms based on reiterative transcription in which nucleotides are repetitively added to the 3' end of a nascent transcript due to upstream transcript slippage. In these mechanisms, reiterative transcription is typically modulated by interactions between RNA polymerase and its nucleoside triphosphate substrates without the involvement of regulatory proteins. This review describes the current state of knowledge of gene regulation involving reiterative transcription. It focuses on the methods by which reiterative transcription is controlled and emphasizes the different fates of transcripts produced by this reaction. The review also includes a discussion of possible new and fundamentally different mechanisms of gene regulation that rely on conditional reiterative transcription.

The transcription inhibitor lipiarmycin blocks DNA fitting into the RNA polymerase catalytic site

Worldwide spreading of drug-resistant pathogens makes mechanistic understanding of antibiotic action an urgent task. The macrocyclic antibiotic lipiarmycin (Lpm), which is under development for clinical use, inhibits bacterial RNA polymerase (RNAP) by an unknown mechanism. Using genetic and biochemical approaches, we show that Lpm targets the sigma(70) subunit region 3.2 and the RNAP beta' subunit switch-2 element, which controls the clamping of promoter DNA in the RNAP active-site cleft. Lpm abolishes isomerization of the 'closed'-promoter complex to the transcriptionally competent 'open' complex and blocks sigma(70)-stimulated RNA synthesis on promoter-less DNA templates. Lpm activity decreases when the template DNA strand is stabilized at the active site through the interaction of RNAP with the nascent RNA chain. Template DNA-strand fitting into the RNAP active-site cleft directed by the beta' subunit switch-2 element and the sigma(70) subunit region 3.2 is essential for promoter melting and for de novo initiation of RNA synthesis, and our results suggest that Lpm impedes this process.

Deletion of switch 3 results in an archaeal RNA polymerase that is defective in transcript elongation

Switch 3 is a polypeptide loop conserved in all multisubunit DNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RNAPs) that extends into the main cleft of the RNAP and contacts each base in a nascent transcript as that base is released from the internal DNA-RNA hybrid. Plasmids have been constructed and transformed into Thermococcus kodakaraensis, which direct the constitutive synthesis of the archaeal RNAP subunit RpoB with an N-terminal His(6) tag and the Switch 3 loop either intact (wild-type) or deleted (DeltaS3). RNAPs containing these plasmid-encoded RpoB subunits were purified, and, in vitro, the absence of Switch 3 had no negative effects on transcription initiation or elongation complex stability but reduced the rate of transcript elongation. The defect in elongation occurred at every template position and increased the sensitivity of the archaeal RNAP to intrinsic termination. Comparing these properties and those reported for a bacterial RNAP lacking Switch 3 argues that this loop functions differently in the RNAPs from the two prokaryotic domains. The close structural homology of archaeal and eukaryotic RNAPs would predict that eukaryotic Switch 3 loops likely conform to the archaeal rather than bacterial functional paradigm.

Elongation by RNA polymerase: a race through roadblocks

Transcription is the first and most regulated step of gene expression. RNA polymerase (RNAP) is the heart of the transcription machinery and a major target for numerous regulatory pathways in living cells. The crystal structures of transcription complexes formed by bacterial RNAP in various configurations have provided a number of breakthroughs in understanding basic, universal mechanisms of transcription and have revealed regulatory 'hot spots' in RNAP that serve as targets and anchors for auxiliary transcription factors. In combination with biochemical analyses, these structures allow feasible modeling of the regulatory complexes for which experimental structural data are still missing. The available structural information suggests a number of general mechanistic predictions that provide a reference point and direction for future studies of transcription regulation.