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Gupta S, Chanda A. Biomechanical modeling of footwear-fluid-floor interaction during slips. J Biomech 2023; 156:111690. [PMID: 37356270 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2023.111690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Slips and falls are among the major concerns for public safety. Slipping risks can be reduced by ensuring adequate traction at the shoe-floor interface. The outsole design of footwear is a critical factor to maintain sufficient shoe-floor traction in the presence of slippery contaminants such as water or oil. While the role of floorings and contaminants on footwear traction has been studied widely, limited works have investigated the role of footwear outsole geometry and tread patterns on shoe-floor traction. In this work, eight footwear outsole designs and their traction performance were tested on a common flooring with water contamination, through the development of a novel fluid-structure interaction based computational framework. Induced fluid pressure, mass flow rates, and contact areas were quantified across the outsole patterns, and their effect on footwear friction was investigated. The study results were validated using mechanical slip testing experiments. The results indicated that the outsoles which had horizontal treads or untreaded heel regions can lead to drastic reduction of footwear friction. Also, contact area alone was quantified to be a poor choice in estimating the traction performance of footwear on water contaminated floorings. Such novel study results have not been reported to date, and are anticipated to provide important guidelines to footwear manufacturers to evaluate and optimize footwear tread parameters which would help in reducing the risk of slips.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shubham Gupta
- Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi, India.
| | - Arnab Chanda
- Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi, India; Department of Biomedical Engineering, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Delhi, India.
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2
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Beschorner KE, Randolph AB. Friction performance of resilient flooring under contaminant conditions relevant to healthcare settings. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2023; 108:103960. [PMID: 36610081 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2022.103960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Flooring is among the factors known to influence slip and fall risk. Slips are common in the healthcare industry, where resilient flooring is prevalent. This study assessed coefficient of friction (COF) across resilient flooring products specific to conditions relevant to healthcare. The COF for eleven resilient flooring surfaces were tested in their dry condition and under six contaminant conditions. Data was analyzed using ANOVA and principal component analysis. The COF was strongly influenced by the contaminant condition (p < 0.001) with hand sanitizer and canola oil having the lowest COF values. COF was also influenced by the flooring product (p < 0.001) although to a lesser extent than the contaminant condition. The contaminants differentially affected the friction performance across the flooring products (interaction effect p < 0.001). These effects were described by the first two principal components. This study reveals high slipping potential for certain contaminants on resilient flooring and that flooring influences friction performance in contaminant-specific ways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt E Beschorner
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 3700 O'Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.
| | - Anna B Randolph
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 3700 O'Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
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3
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Jakobsen L, Lysdal FG, Bagehorn T, Kersting UG, Sivebaek IM. The effect of footwear outsole material on slip resistance on dry and contaminated surfaces with geometrically controlled outsoles. ERGONOMICS 2023; 66:322-329. [PMID: 35603991 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2022.2081364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies have compared slip resistance of commercially available footwear, however, often lacking the ability to isolate factors such as material and surface properties, or/and geometry. The aim of this study was to compare slip resistance of geometrically identical shoes with varying outsole materials. Three left Ecco Xpedition III shoes were constructed out of three different outsole materials: polyurethane (PU), thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) and vulcanised rubber (RU). The shoes were tested for dynamic coefficient of friction (DCOF) on a steel and a tile surface, without contamination and with glycerine and canola oil as contaminants. The shoes were significantly (p < 0.001) different from each other across all surface/contaminant conditions/combinations, with the PU having a significantly 61-125% (p < 0.001) higher DCOF on contaminated surfaces compared to the RU outsole.Practitioner summary: Previous research has suggested the importance of studying individual parameters separately of footwear in relation to slip resistance. In this study, we managed to construct geometrically identical shoes and compare the slip resistance between three different outsole materials. We found that the polyurethane outsole was the least slippery choice of material for this specific footwear model on contaminated surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lasse Jakobsen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Filip Gertz Lysdal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Timo Bagehorn
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Uwe G Kersting
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
- Institute of Biomechanics and Orthopaedics, German Sport University Cologne, Koln, Germany
| | - Ion Marius Sivebaek
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark
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4
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Chimich DD, Al-Salehi L, Elkin BS, Siegmund GP. Contaminant film thickness affects walkway friction measurements. Front Public Health 2022; 10:915140. [PMID: 36111191 PMCID: PMC9469017 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.915140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Walkway tribometers are used to measure available friction for evaluating walkway safety and pedestrian slip risk. Numerous variables can affect tribometer measurements, including the type and distribution of contaminants on the surface. Here, we quantified the effect of application method on contaminant film thickness, and the effect of film thickness on tribometer measurements on the four reference walkway surfaces used in ASTM F2508-16e. Distilled water, 0.05% sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) solution, and 0.04% Triton X-100 solution were poured, squirted, and sprayed onto the surfaces to quantify their naturally occurring film thicknesses. These application methods had a significant effect on the resulting film thickness (p < 0.038), with the pour method consistently generating the thickest films and the spray method generating the thinnest films. We then quantified the effect of film thickness for the three contaminants (thickness range 0.3-3.3 mm) on the friction measurements of three common tribometers (Mark IIIB, English XL, and BOT 3000E) on each reference surface. A separate ANOVA was used for each of the 3 × 4 × 3 = 36 combinations of tribometer, surface, and contaminant. Friction measured with the Mark IIIB decreased with increasing film thickness on one surface across all three contaminants and on a second surface with the SLS contaminant. Friction measured with the BOT 3000E was sensitive to film thickness on two surfaces with water and one surface with Triton. The XL was unaffected by contaminant film thickness. Overall, despite significant differences in film thickness with contaminant application method, friction measurements were either insensitive to film thickness or varied only a small amount in all cases except for the Mark IIIB on the roughest surface. Film thickness did not alter the relative slip resistance of the four ASTM F2508 reference surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Loay Al-Salehi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | - Gunter P. Siegmund
- MEA Forensic Engineers & Scientists, Richmond, BC, Canada,School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada,*Correspondence: Gunter P. Siegmund
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5
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Meehan EE, Vidic N, Beschorner KE. In contrast to slip-resistant shoes, fluid drainage capacity explains friction performance across shoes that are not slip-resistant. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2022; 100:103663. [PMID: 34894586 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2021.103663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Slip and fall injuries can be prevented through footwear with good friction performance. The factors that contribute to friction in non-slip-resistant (NSR) shoes are not well understood. The purpose of this study was to determine whether predictive models for slip-resistant (SR) shoes also apply to NSR shoes. This study also quantified the contributions of under-shoe fluid drainage to friction in NSR shoes. The coefficient of friction (ACOF) and under-shoe fluid pressures of fifteen NSR shoes were measured. A previously developed ACOF prediction model based on measurable outsole features was applied to the NSR shoes. The previously developed model did not apply well (in trends, as indicated by interaction effects involving SR/NSR classification, or in magnitude, p < 0.001) to NSR shoes. Instead, an increase in the fluid pressures were associated with a reduction in ACOF (p < 0.001). This study demonstrates that fluid pressures dominate performance in NSR shoes in contrast to SR shoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily E Meehan
- Bioengineering Department, University of Pittsburgh, 3700 O'Hara St. #302, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Natasa Vidic
- Industrial Engineering Department, University of Pittsburgh, 3700 O'Hara St. #1007, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Kurt E Beschorner
- Bioengineering Department, University of Pittsburgh, 3700 O'Hara St. #302, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA.
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6
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The Future of Footwear Friction. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 21ST CONGRESS OF THE INTERNATIONAL ERGONOMICS ASSOCIATION (IEA 2021) 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-74614-8_103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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7
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Jakobsen L, Lysdal FG, Sivebaek IM. Dynamic mechanical analysis as a predictor for slip resistance and traction in footwear. FOOTWEAR SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/19424280.2021.1917680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lasse Jakobsen
- Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
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8
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Emerging safety risks from public facilities: a field study for ablution spaces in mosques. FACILITIES 2021. [DOI: 10.1108/f-09-2020-0109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Purpose
Muslims require an exclusive ablution space for preparing for daily prayers in mosques. Ablution floors seem to entail design challenges since they are often encountered in lubricated conditions from worshippers’ body cleaning manoeuvers. Accordingly, fall risks on saturated surfaces of ablution floors would be a major issue to Muslim worshippers. Thus, the purpose of this study is to investigate the safety status of mosque ablution floors in terms of slip resistance properties and surface texture.
Design/methodology/approach
Fifteen mosques in Dubai and Sharjah cities of the UAE were randomly chosen to investigate the safety conditions of ablution spaces. In-situ slip-resistance properties and surface finishes of each ablution floor were measured under clean, wet, and soapy conditions at two different volumes of traffic areas: heavy- and non-traffic. Surface finishes of ablution floors were also measured and analysed.
Findings
Outcomes from this study evidently showed that the inspected ablution floors were not currently protected against falls, especially under wet and soapy environments. Surface analyses identified that the present ablution floors have extremely flat surfaces (? 2 µm in the Ra parameter) so they require significant improvements against fall risks.
Originality/value
Regardless of the magnitude of this issue, it is scarce to attain any published study on ablution floors’ fall incidence and avoidance plans in the scientific and technical literature. There are also no officially and publicly available data on fall incidents from ablution places in mosques. Findings from this study would be a great step forward to establish safer ablution floors for Muslim prayers.
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Yamaguchi T, Shibata K, Wada H, Kakehi H, Hokkirigawa K. Effect of foot-floor friction on the external moment about the body center of mass during shuffling gait: a pilot study. Sci Rep 2021; 11:12133. [PMID: 34108540 PMCID: PMC8190157 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91683-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Herein, we investigated the effect of friction between foot sole and floor on the external forward moment about the body center of mass (COM) in normal and shuffling gaits. Five young male adults walked with normal and shuffling gaits, under low- and high-friction surface conditions. The maximum external forward moment about the COM (MEFM-COM) in a normal gait appeared approximately at initial foot contact and was unaffected by floor condition. However, MEFM-COM in a shuffling gait under high-friction conditions exceeded that under low-friction conditions (p < 0.001). Therein, MEFM-COM increased with an increasing utilized coefficient of friction at initial foot contact; this effect was weaker during a normal gait. These findings indicate that increased friction between foot sole and floor might increase tripping risk during a shuffling gait, even in the absence of discrete physical obstacles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Yamaguchi
- Department of Finemechanics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-01 Aramaki-Aza-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8579, Japan. .,Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan.
| | - Kei Shibata
- Department of Finemechanics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-01 Aramaki-Aza-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8579, Japan
| | | | | | - Kazuo Hokkirigawa
- Department of Finemechanics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-01 Aramaki-Aza-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8579, Japan
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10
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Roshan Fekr A, Li Y, Gauvin C, Wong G, Cheng W, Fernie G, Dutta T. Evaluation of Winter Footwear: Comparison of Test Methods to Determine Footwear Slip Resistance on Ice Surfaces. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:E405. [PMID: 33419196 PMCID: PMC7825554 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18020405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 12/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The use of slip-resistant winter footwear is crucial for the prevention of slips and falls on ice and snow. The main objective of this paper is to evaluate a mechanical testing method to determine footwear slip resistance on wet and dry ice surfaces and to compare it with the human-centred test method introduced by researchers at KITE (Knowledge, Innovation, Talent, Everywhere)-Toronto Rehabilitation Institute-University Health Network. Phase 1 of this study assessed the repeatability and reproducibility of the mechanical method by evaluating ten different occupational winter boots using two SATRA Slip resistance testers (STM 603, SATRA Technology Centre, Kettering, UK). One tester is located in Toronto and one in Montreal. These boots were chosen based on the needs of the IRSST (Institut de Recherche Robert-Sauvé en Santé et en Sécurité du Travail, Montréal, Quebec, Canada), who were primarily interested in providing safe winter footwear for police, firefighters and municipal workers. In Phase 2, the results of the human-centred test approach were compared with the mechanical results. In Phase 3, two of these boots with conflicting results from the previous phases were tested using a second human-centred method. In Phase 1, the mechanical testing results obtained in the two labs showed a high linear correlation (>0.94) and good agreement on both ice surfaces; however, they revealed a bias (~0.06) between the two labs on the dry ice condition. The mechanical and human-centred tests (phase 2) were found to be better correlated in the wet ice condition (R = 0.95) compared to the dry ice condition (R = 0.34). Finally, the rating of the footwear slip resistance based on the number of slips counted in phase 3 was consistent with the rating by the human-centred test method (phase 2), but not the mechanical method (phase 1). The findings of this study provide a better understanding of the limitations of the SATRA ice tray for measuring footwear slip resistance and demonstrate that the mechanical method must be further refined to make it more comparable to the human-centred methods to achieve better agreement with real-world performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atena Roshan Fekr
- The Kite Research Institute, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute—University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5G 2A2, Canada; (Y.L.); (G.W.); (W.C.); (G.F.); (T.D.)
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Yue Li
- The Kite Research Institute, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute—University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5G 2A2, Canada; (Y.L.); (G.W.); (W.C.); (G.F.); (T.D.)
| | - Chantal Gauvin
- Mechanical and Physical Risk Prevention Team, IRSST—Institut de Recherche Robert-Sauvé en Santé et en Sécurité du Travail, Montréal, QC H3A 3C2, Canada;
| | - Gordon Wong
- The Kite Research Institute, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute—University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5G 2A2, Canada; (Y.L.); (G.W.); (W.C.); (G.F.); (T.D.)
| | - Wayne Cheng
- The Kite Research Institute, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute—University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5G 2A2, Canada; (Y.L.); (G.W.); (W.C.); (G.F.); (T.D.)
| | - Geoff Fernie
- The Kite Research Institute, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute—University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5G 2A2, Canada; (Y.L.); (G.W.); (W.C.); (G.F.); (T.D.)
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Tilak Dutta
- The Kite Research Institute, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute—University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5G 2A2, Canada; (Y.L.); (G.W.); (W.C.); (G.F.); (T.D.)
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G9, Canada
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11
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Beschorner KE, Siegel JL, Hemler SL, Sundaram VH, Chanda A, Iraqi A, Haight JM, Redfern MS. An observational ergonomic tool for assessing the worn condition of slip-resistant shoes. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2020; 88:103140. [PMID: 32678768 PMCID: PMC7368090 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2020.103140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Worn shoes are known to contribute to slip-and-fall risk, a common cause of workplace injuries. However, guidelines for replacing shoes are not well developed. Recent experiments and lubrication theory suggest that the size of the worn region is an important contributor to the shoe tread's ability to drain fluid and therefore the under-shoe friction. This study evaluated a simple test for comparing the size of the worn region relative to a common object (AAA and AA battery) as a means of determining shoe replacement. This study consisted of three components involving slip-resistant shoes: Experiment #1: a longitudinal, mechanical, accelerated wear experiment; Experiment #2: a longitudinal experiment where the same shoes were tested after each month of worker use; and Experiment #3: a cross-sectional experiment that exposed participants to a slippery condition, while donning their own worn shoes. The COF (Experiments #1 and #2); under-shoe fluid pressure (all experiments); and slip severity (Experiment #3) were compared across outcomes (fail/pass) of the battery tests. Larger fluid pressures, lower coefficient of friction, and more severe slips were observed for shoes that failed the battery tests compared with those passing the tests. This method offers promise for assessing loss in friction and an increase in slip risk for slip-resistant shoes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sarah L Hemler
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Vani H Sundaram
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Material Science, University of Pittsburgh, USA; Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, USA
| | - Arnab Chanda
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, USA; Center for Biomedical Engineering, India Institute of Technology-Delhi, India
| | - Arian Iraqi
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Joel M Haight
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Mark S Redfern
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, USA
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12
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Sundaram VH, Hemler SL, Chanda A, Haight JM, Redfern MS, Beschorner KE. Worn region size of shoe outsole impacts human slips: Testing a mechanistic model. J Biomech 2020; 105:109797. [PMID: 32423543 PMCID: PMC7362878 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2020.109797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Shoe outsole tread wear has been shown to increase slip risk by reducing the tread's ability to channel fluid away from the shoe-floor interface. This study establishes a connection between geometric features of the worn region size and slipping. A mechanistic pathway that describes the relationship between the worn region size and slip risk is assessed. Specifically, it is hypothesized that an increased worn region size leads to an increase in under-shoe fluid pressure, which reduces friction, and subsequently increases slipping. The worn region size, fluid pressure, and slip outcome were recorded for 57 participants, who were exposed to an unexpected slip condition. Shoes were collected from each participant and the available coefficient of friction (ACOF) was measured using a tribometer. A greater shoe worn region size was associated with increased slip occurrence. Specifically, a 1 mm increase in the characteristic length of the worn region (geometric mean of its width and length) was associated with an increase in slip risk of ~10%. Fluid pressure and ACOF results supported the mechanistic model: an increase in worn region size correlated with an increase in peak fluid pressure; peak fluid pressures negatively correlated with ACOF; and increased ACOF correlated with decreased slip risk. This finding supports the use of worn region size as a metric to assess the risk of slipping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vani H Sundaram
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, United States; Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, United States.
| | - Sarah L Hemler
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, United States.
| | - Arnab Chanda
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, United States; Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India.
| | - Joel M Haight
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, United States.
| | - Mark S Redfern
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, United States.
| | - Kurt E Beschorner
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, United States; Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, United States.
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13
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Beschorner KE, Iraqi A, Redfern MS, Moyer BE, Cham R. Influence of averaging time-interval on shoe-floor-contaminant available coefficient of friction measurements. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2020; 82:102959. [PMID: 31568960 PMCID: PMC6922306 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2019.102959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Available coefficient of friction (ACOF) is a common metric of footwear traction performance. ACOF is the ratio of friction to normal force, often averaged over a time-interval. The time-interval needed to achieve repeatable and valid ACOF is unknown. A post-hoc analysis was performed on nine shoe-floor-contaminant combinations to assess the repeatability and bias of data averaged across 4 time-intervals (2 ms, 50 ms, 100 ms, 200 ms) after the target normal force was reached. The ability to predict human slips was assessed for ACOF across these intervals. Differences in repeatability and validity across the four intervals were small. However, statistically significant differences were observed for the shortest compared with the longest interval (lower repeatability yet modestly improved predictive ability). Given the limited impact of time-interval on the results, a shorter interval of 50 ms is recommended to enable testing of smaller floor samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt E Beschorner
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Engineering Hall #302, 3700 O'Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, United States.
| | - Arian Iraqi
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Engineering Hall #302, 3700 O'Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, United States.
| | - Mark S Redfern
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Engineering Hall #302, 3700 O'Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, United States.
| | - Brian E Moyer
- Crossroads Consulting, LLC, 1334 Luzerne St Ext, Johnstown, PA, 15905, United States; Mechanical Engineering, University of Pittsburgh Johnstown, Johnstown, PA, 15905, United States.
| | - Rakié Cham
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Engineering Hall #302, 3700 O'Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, United States; Department of Physical Therapy, University of Pittsburgh, United States; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, United States.
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14
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Li J, Goerlandt F, Li KW. Slip and Fall Incidents at Work: A Visual Analytics Analysis of the Research Domain. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16244972. [PMID: 31817818 PMCID: PMC6950497 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16244972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 11/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Slip and fall incidents at work remain an important class of injury and fatality causing mechanisms. An extensive body of safety research has accumulated on this topic. This article presents an analysis of this research domain. Two bibliometric visualization tools are applied: VOSviewer and HistCite. Samples of 618 slip and fall related articles are obtained from the Web of Science database. Networks of institutions, authors, terms, and chronological citation relationships are established. Collaboration and research activities of the slip and fall research community show that most contributors are from the United States, with the (now closed) Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety the most influential research organization. The results of a term clustering analysis show that the slip and fall research can be grouped into three sub-domains: epidemiology, gait/biomechanics, and tribology. Of these, early research focused mainly on tribology, whereas research on gait/biomechanics and epidemiological studies are relatively more recent. Psychological aspects of slip and fall incident occurrence represent a relatively under-investigated research topic, in which future contributions may provide new insights and safety improvements. Better linking of this research domain with other principles and methods in safety science, such as safety management and resilience, may also present valuable future development paths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Li
- Department of Safety Science and Engineering, School of Ocean Science and Engineering, Shanghai Maritime University, Pudong New Area, Shanghai 201306, China
- State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Floris Goerlandt
- Dalhousie University, Department of Industrial Engineering, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4R2,UK
| | - Kai Way Li
- Department of Industrial Management, Chung Hua University, Hsin-Chu 30012, Taiwan
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15
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Beschorner KE, Iraqi A, Redfern MS, Cham R, Li Y. Predicting slips based on the STM 603 whole-footwear tribometer under different coefficient of friction testing conditions. ERGONOMICS 2019; 62:668-681. [PMID: 30638144 PMCID: PMC7365591 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2019.1567828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Assessing footwear slip-resistance is critical to preventing slip and fall accidents. The STM 603 (SATRA Technology) is commonly used to assess footwear friction but its ability to predict human slips while walking is unclear. This study assessed this apparatus' ability to predict slips across footwear designs and to determine if modifying the test parameters alters predictions. The available coefficient of friction (ACOF) was measured with the device for nine different footwear designs using 12 testing conditions with varying vertical force, speed and shoe angle. The occurrence of slipping and the required coefficient of friction was quantified from human gait data including 124 exposures to liquid contaminants. ACOF values varied across the test conditions leading to different slip prediction models. Generally, a steeper shoe angle (13°) and higher vertical forces (400 or 500 N) modestly improved predictions of slipping. This study can potentially guide improvements in predictive test conditions for this device. Practitioner Summary: Frictional measures by the STM603 (SATRA Technology) were able to predict human slips under liquid contaminant conditions. Test parameters did have an influence on the measurements. An increased shoe-floor testing angle resulted in better slip predictions than test methods specified in the ASTM F2913 standard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt E. Beschorner
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Hall 302, 3700 O’Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Arian Iraqi
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Hall 302, 3700 O’Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Mark S. Redfern
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Hall 302, 3700 O’Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Rakié Cham
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Hall 302, 3700 O’Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Pittsburgh
| | - Yue Li
- Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network, 550 University Avenue
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16
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Moghaddam SRM, Hemler SL, Redfern MS, Jacobs TDB, Beschorner KE. Computational Model of Shoe Wear Progression: Comparison with Experimental Results. WEAR : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF FRICTION LUBRICATION AND WEAR 2019; 422-423:235-241. [PMID: 37200982 PMCID: PMC10190155 DOI: 10.1016/j.wear.2019.01.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Worn shoes increase the risk of slip and fall accidents. Few research efforts have attempted to predict the progression of shoe wear. This study presents a computational modeling framework that simulates wear progression in footwear outsoles based on finite element analysis and Archard's equation for wear. The results of the computational model were qualitatively and quantitatively compared with experimental results from shoes subjected to an accelerated wear protocol. Key variables of interest were the order in which individual tread blocks were worn and the size of the worn region. The order in which shoe treads became completely worn were strongly correlated between the models and experiments (rs > 0.74, p < 0.005 for all of the shoes). The ability of the model to predict the size of the worn region varied across the shoe designs. Findings demonstrate the capability of the computational modeling methodology to provide realistic predictions of shoe wear progression. This model represents a promising first step to developing a model that can guide footwear replacement programs and footwear design with durable slip-resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Reza M Moghaddam
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Engineering Hall 302, 3700 O’Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Sarah L. Hemler
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Engineering Hall 302, 3700 O’Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Mark S. Redfern
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Engineering Hall 302, 3700 O’Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Tevis DB. Jacobs
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Hall 636, 3700 O’Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261
| | - Kurt E. Beschorner
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Engineering Hall 302, 3700 O’Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261
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17
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Iraqi A, Cham R, Redfern MS, Beschorner KE. Coefficient of friction testing parameters influence the prediction of human slips. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2018; 70:118-126. [PMID: 29866300 PMCID: PMC5991488 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2018.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Revised: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/17/2018] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Measuring the available coefficient of friction (ACOF) of a shoe-floor interface is influenced by the choice of normal force, shoe-floor angle and sliding speed. The purpose of this study was to quantify the quality of slip prediction models based on ACOF values measured across different testing conditions. A dynamic ACOF measurement device that tests entire footwear specimens (Portable Slip Simulator) was used. The ACOF was measured for nine different footwear-contaminant combinations with two levels of normal force, sliding speed and shoe-floor angle. These footwear-contaminant combinations were also used in human gait studies to quantify the required coefficient of friction (RCOF) and slip outcomes. The results showed that test conditions significantly influenced ACOF. The condition that best predicted slip risk during the gait studies was 250 N normal force, 17° shoe-floor angle, 0.5 m/s sliding speed. These findings can inform footwear slip-resistance measurement methods to improve design and prevent slips.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arian Iraqi
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Engineering Hall #302, 3700 O'Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States.
| | - Rakié Cham
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Engineering Hall #302, 3700 O'Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States.
| | - Mark S Redfern
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Engineering Hall #302, 3700 O'Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States.
| | - Kurt E Beschorner
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Benedum Engineering Hall #302, 3700 O'Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States.
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18
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Chang WR, Chang CC. Relationship among several measurements of slipperiness obtained in a laboratory environment. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2018; 68:117-124. [PMID: 29409624 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Revised: 11/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sensing mechanisms could be used in forming responses to avoid slips, but previous studies, correlating only two parameters, revealed a limited picture of this complex system. In this study, the participants walked as fast as possible without a slip under 15 conditions of different degrees of slipperiness. The relationships among various response parameters, including perceived slipperiness rating, utilized coefficient of friction (UCOF), slipmeter measurement and kinematic parameters, were evaluated. The results showed that the UCOF, perceived rating and heel angle had higher adjusted R2 values as dependent variables in the multiple linear regressions with the remaining variables in the final pool as independent variables. Although each variable in the final data pool could reflect some measurement of slipperiness, these three variables are more inclusive than others in representing the other variables and were bigger predictors of other variables, so they could be better candidates for measurements of slipperiness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ruey Chang
- Chang WR Falls Prevention, LLC, Arlington, VA 22203, USA.
| | - Chien-Chi Chang
- Department of Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, ROC
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19
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Trkov M, Yi J, Liu T, Li K. Shoe-Floor Interactions in Human Walking With Slips: Modeling and Experiments. J Biomech Eng 2018; 140:2659643. [PMID: 29055127 DOI: 10.1115/1.4038251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Shoe-floor interactions play a crucial role in determining the possibility of potential slip and fall during human walking. Biomechanical and tribological parameters influence the friction characteristics between the shoe sole and the floor and the existing work mainly focus on experimental studies. In this paper, we present modeling, analysis, and experiments to understand slip and force distributions between the shoe sole and floor surface during human walking. We present results for both soft and hard sole material. The computational approaches for slip and friction force distributions are presented using a spring-beam networks model. The model predictions match the experimentally observed sole deformations with large soft sole deformation at the beginning and the end stages of the stance, which indicates the increased risk for slip. The experiments confirm that both the previously reported required coefficient of friction (RCOF) and the deformation measurements in this study can be used to predict slip occurrence. Moreover, the deformation and force distribution results reported in this study provide further understanding and knowledge of slip initiation and termination under various biomechanical conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitja Trkov
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854 e-mail:
| | - Jingang Yi
- Fellow ASME Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854 e-mail:
| | - Tao Liu
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310027, China e-mail:
| | - Kang Li
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854 e-mail:
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20
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Ziaei M, Mokhtarinia H, Tabatabai Ghomshe F, Maghsoudipour M. Coefficient of friction, walking speed and cadence on slippery and dry surfaces: shoes with different groove depths. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND ERGONOMICS 2017; 25:524-529. [PMID: 29134923 DOI: 10.1080/10803548.2017.1398922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Objective. The present study aimed to determine the coefficient of friction (COF), walking speed (WS) and cadence while walking on slippery and dry surfaces using shoes with different sole groove depths to predict likelihood of fall. Background. Design of shoe sole groove is crucial to prevent slipping during walking. Methods. 22 healthy young men (mean age 24.5, body mass index 22.5) volunteered for this semi-experimental study. Six different conditions of the test (combination of three shoes and two surfaces) were defined and the condition was repeated three times. In total, 396 trials (22 subjects × 3 groove depths × 2 surfaces × 3 times) were obtained for data analysis. COF was recorded by force platform at 1000 Hz and walking parameters recorded using 3D motion analysis with six infrared cameras at 200 Hz. Results. The highest COF was obtained from the deepest groove depth (5.0 mm) on both dry and slippery surfaces. The COF on slippery surfaces was significantly lower in comparison with dry surfaces. WS and cadence were not significantly different on dry and slippery surfaces. Conclusion. The deeper groove is better to prevent slipping because the COF increases by increasing the shoe sole groove depth. WS did not change on dry and slippery surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mansour Ziaei
- a Occupational Health Department, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences , Iran
| | - Hamidreza Mokhtarinia
- b Ergonomics Department, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences , Iran
| | - Farhad Tabatabai Ghomshe
- b Ergonomics Department, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences , Iran.,c Pediatric Neuro-rehabilitation Research Center, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences , Iran
| | - Maryam Maghsoudipour
- b Ergonomics Department, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences , Iran
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21
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Chang WR, Chang CC, Lesch MF, Matz S. Gait adaptation on surfaces with different degrees of slipperiness. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2017; 59:333-341. [PMID: 27890145 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2016.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2015] [Revised: 07/30/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Gait adaptation to employ different ways to avoid a potential slip is needed to continue walking safely on a new surface, especially when transitioning to a slippery surface. In this experiment, participants walked back and forth five times (trials) on surfaces with different degrees of slipperiness. The results show that trial 1 was significantly different from other trials for most of the dependent variables, especially for the low and high friction conditions. Kinematics on high and medium friction surfaces were very similar, but more adjustments were needed for low friction surfaces. The data for the first trial reflect gait after walking for 2.4 m on the walkway, not the first step onto the walkway. The current data show that gait adaptation continued beyond the first trial. Since participants in this experiment were aware of the floor conditions, the results could have important safety implications that user awareness alone might be insufficient for safe floor designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ruey Chang
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA.
| | - Chien-Chi Chang
- Department of Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Mary F Lesch
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA
| | - Simon Matz
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA
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22
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Albert D, Moyer B, Beschorner KE. Three-Dimensional Shoe Kinematics During Unexpected Slips: Implications for Shoe–Floor Friction Testing. IISE Trans Occup Ergon Hum Factors 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/21577323.2016.1241963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Devon Albert
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 3700 O'Hara Street, Room 302, Pittsburgh, PA 15271, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Brian Moyer
- Mechanical Engineering Technology Department, University of Pittsburgh–Johnstown, Johnstown, PA, USA
| | - Kurt E. Beschorner
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 3700 O'Hara Street, Room 302, Pittsburgh, PA 15271, USA
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23
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Abstract
The study of slips and falls has traditionally focused on body kinematics and tribology. However, this strictly mechanical approach does not allow scientists to assess the importance of each component in relation to the complete system, and thus it lacks integration. The purpose of this chapter is to present and demonstrate the components of a broad analysis for in-depth understanding of slips and falls while walking on level surfaces. In most slip-and-fall studies, balance analysis is simplified and attributed to the point of heel contact. To determine sufficient fall prevention strategies, however, one must analyze balance before the critical moment of lost control. Such an approach requires the sciences of biomechanics, mechanics, anatomy, and neuromuscular control, as well as tribology. Causes of slips and falls are complex, and prevention approaches are often reactive, driven by high-injury trends and lawsuits. Prevention strategies need to be more proactive: Understanding the causes of accidents can help in identifying and correcting hazards before they cause problems. Examples include reporting incidents, selecting the right flooring, selecting footwear, and implementing proper floor-cleaning procedures. A combined effort among all members of the organization, including communication across the entire work system, is critical to the success of slip-and-fall prevention efforts.
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24
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Chang WR, Leclercq S, Lockhart TE, Haslam R. State of science: occupational slips, trips and falls on the same level. ERGONOMICS 2016; 59:861-83. [PMID: 26903401 PMCID: PMC5078727 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2016.1157214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Occupational slips, trips and falls on the same level (STFL) result in substantial injuries worldwide. This paper summarises the state of science regarding STFL, outlining relevant aspects of epidemiology, biomechanics, psychophysics, tribology, organisational influences and injury prevention. This review reaffirms that STFL remain a major cause of workplace injury and STFL prevention is a complex problem, requiring multi-disciplinary, multi-faceted approaches. Despite progress in recent decades in understanding the mechanisms involved in STFL, especially slipping, research leading to evidence-based prevention practices remains insufficient, given the problem scale. It is concluded that there is a pressing need to develop better fall prevention strategies using systems approaches conceptualising and addressing the factors involved in STFL, with considerations of the full range of factors and their interactions. There is also an urgent need for field trials of various fall prevention strategies to assess the effectiveness of different intervention components and their interactions. Practitioner Summary: Work-related slipping, tripping and falls on the same level are a major source of occupational injury. The causes are broadly understood, although more attention is needed from a systems perspective. Research has shown preventative action to be effective, but further studies are required to understand which aspects are most beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ruey Chang
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA, USA
| | - Sylvie Leclercq
- French National Research and Safety Institute (INRS), Vandoeuvre, France
| | - Thurmon E. Lockhart
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Roger Haslam
- Loughborough Design School, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
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25
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Yamaguchi T, Hsu J, Li Y, Maki BE. Efficacy of a rubber outsole with a hybrid surface pattern for preventing slips on icy surfaces. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2015; 51:9-17. [PMID: 26154199 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2015.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 01/31/2015] [Accepted: 04/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Conventional winter-safety footwear devices, such as crampons, can be effective in preventing slips on icy surfaces but the protruding studs can lead to other problems such as trips. A new hybrid (rough and smooth) rubber outsole was designed to provide high slip resistance without use of protruding studs or asperities. In the present study, we examined the slip resistance of the hybrid rubber outsole on both dry (-10 °C) and wet (0 °C) icy surfaces, in comparison to three conventional strap-on winter anti-slip devices: 1) metal coils ("Yaktrax Walker"), 2) gritted (sandpaper-like) straps ("Rough Grip"), and 3) crampons ("Altagrips-Lite"). Drag tests were performed to measure static (SCOF) and dynamic (DCOF) coefficients of friction, and gait trials were conducted on both level and sloped ice surfaces (16 participants). The drag-test results showed relatively high SCOF (≧0.37) and DCOF (≧0.31) values for the hybrid rubber sole, at both temperatures. The other three footwear types exhibited lower DCOF values (0.06-0.20) when compared with the hybrid rubber sole at 0 °C (p < 0.01). Slips were more frequent when wearing the metal coils, in comparison to the other footwear types, when descending a slope at -10 °C (6% of trials vs 0%; p < 0.05). There were no other significant footwear-related differences in slip frequency, distance or velocity. These results indicate that the slip-resistance of the hybrid rubber sole on icy surfaces was comparable to conventional anti-slip footwear devices. Given the likely advantages of the hybrid rubber sole (less susceptibility to tripping, better slip resistance on non-icy surfaces), this type of sole should contribute to a decrease in fall accidents; however, further research is needed to confirm its effectiveness under a wider range of test conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Yamaguchi
- Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan.
| | - Jennifer Hsu
- Toronto Rehabilitation Institute-University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Yue Li
- Toronto Rehabilitation Institute-University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Brian E Maki
- Toronto Rehabilitation Institute-University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada; Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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26
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Hsu J, Li Y, Dutta T, Fernie G. Assessing the performance of winter footwear using a new maximum achievable incline method. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2015; 50:218-225. [PMID: 25959337 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2015.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2014] [Revised: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
More informative tests of winter footwear performance are required in order to identify footwear that will prevent injurious slips and falls on icy conditions. In this study, eight participants tested four styles of winter boots on smooth wet ice. The surface was progressively tilted to create increasing longitudinal and cross-slopes until participants could no longer continue standing or walking. Maximum achievable incline angles provided consistent measures of footwear slip resistance and demonstrated better resolution than mechanical tests. One footwear outsole material and tread combination outperformed the others on wet ice allowing participants to successfully walk on steep longitudinal slopes of 17.5° ± 1.9° (mean ± SD). By further exploiting the methodology to include additional surfaces and contaminants, such tests could be used to optimize tread designs and materials that are ideal for reducing the risk of slips and falls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Hsu
- Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network, 550 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 2A2, Canada; University of Toronto, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, 5 King's College Road, Toronto ON M5S 3G8, Canada.
| | - Yue Li
- Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network, 550 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 2A2, Canada
| | - Tilak Dutta
- Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network, 550 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 2A2, Canada
| | - Geoff Fernie
- Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network, 550 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 2A2, Canada; University of Toronto, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, 5 King's College Road, Toronto ON M5S 3G8, Canada
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27
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Blanchette MG, Powers CM. The influence of footwear tread groove parameters on available friction. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2015; 50:237-41. [PMID: 25959339 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2015.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2014] [Revised: 03/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/26/2015] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine how footwear tread groove parameters influence available friction (COF). Utilizing a whole shoe tester (SATRA STM 603), 3 groove parameters (width, depth and orientation) were evaluated. Groove orientation had 3 levels (parallel, oblique and perpendicular), width had 3 levels (3, 6 and 9 mm) and depth had 3 levels (2, 4 and 6 mm). In total, the COF of 27 shoes, each with a distinct groove combination, was assessed on wet porcelain tile. The 27 groove combinations produced a wide range of COF values (0.080-0.344). Groove orientation had the greatest impact on COF, explaining the greatest variance in observed COF values (ŋ(2) = 0.81). The most slip resistant groove combination was an oblique orientation, with 3 mm width and 2 mm depth. The least slip resistant groove combination was a parallel orientation, with a 6 mm width and 6 mm depth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark G Blanchette
- Semper Scientific, Mission Viejo, CA, USA; Division of Biokinesiology & Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Christopher M Powers
- Division of Biokinesiology & Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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28
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Chang WR, Lesch MF, Chang CC, Matz S. Contribution of gait parameters and available coefficient of friction to perceptions of slipperiness. Gait Posture 2015; 41:288-90. [PMID: 25201789 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2014.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2014] [Revised: 08/12/2014] [Accepted: 08/13/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Perceived slipperiness rating (PSR) has been widely used to assess walkway safety. In this experiment, 29 participants were exposed to 5 floor types under dry, wet and glycerol conditions. The relationship between their PSR and objective measurements, including utilized coefficient of friction (UCOF), gait kinematics and available coefficient of friction (ACOF), was explored with a regression analysis using step-wise backward elimination. The results showed that UCOF and ACOF, as well as their difference, were the major predictors of the PSR under wet and glycerol conditions. Under wet conditions, the participants appeared to rely on the potential for foot slip to form their PSR. Under glycerol conditions, some kinematic variables also became major predictors of PSR. The results show how different proprioceptive responses and ACOF contributed to the prediction of PSR under different surface conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ruey Chang
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA.
| | - Mary F Lesch
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA
| | - Chien-Chi Chang
- Department of Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Simon Matz
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA
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29
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Singh G, Beschorner KE. A Method for Measuring Fluid Pressures in the Shoe-Floor-Fluid Interface: Application to Shoe Tread Evaluation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 2:53-59. [PMID: 31106007 DOI: 10.1080/21577323.2014.919367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Background Fluid contaminants cause slipping accidents by reducing shoe-floor friction. Fluid pressures in the shoe-floor interface reduce contact between the surfaces and, thus, reduce friction between the surfaces. A technological gap for measuring fluid pressures, however, has impeded improved understanding of what factors influence these pressures. Purpose This study aimed to introduce a technique for measuring fluid pressures under the shoe and to demonstrate the utility of the technique by quantifying the effects of tread depth and fluid viscosity on fluid pressures for two different shoes. Methods A fluid pressure sensor embedded in the floor surface was used to measure fluid pressures, while a robotic slip-tester traversed the shoe over the floor surface. Multiple scans were collected to develop 2D fluid pressure maps across the shoe surface. Two shoe tread types (an athletic shoe and a work shoe), two fluids (high-viscosity diluted glycerol and a low-viscosity detergent solution), and three tread depths (full tread, half tread, and no tread) were tested, while fluid pressures were measured. Results Untreaded shoes combined with a high-viscosity fluid resulted in high fluid pressures, while treaded shoes or low-viscosity fluids resulted in low fluid pressures. The increased fluid pressures that were observed for the untreaded shoes are consistent with tribology theory and evidence from human slipping studies. Conclusions The methods described here successfully measured fluid pressures and yielded results consistent with tribological theory and human slipping experiments. This approach offers significant potential in evaluating the slip-resistance of tread designs and determining wear limits for replacing shoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gurjeet Singh
- Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Wisconsin- Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Kurt E Beschorner
- Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Wisconsin- Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USA.,Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 3700 O'Hara St. #302, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
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30
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Chang WR, Matz S, Chang CC. The stochastic distribution of available coefficient of friction for human locomotion of five different floor surfaces. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2014; 45:811-5. [PMID: 24268803 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2013.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2013] [Accepted: 10/13/2013] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The maximum coefficient of friction that can be supported at the shoe and floor interface without a slip is usually called the available coefficient of friction (ACOF) for human locomotion. The probability of a slip could be estimated using a statistical model by comparing the ACOF with the required coefficient of friction (RCOF), assuming that both coefficients have stochastic distributions. An investigation of the stochastic distributions of the ACOF of five different floor surfaces under dry, water and glycerol conditions is presented in this paper. One hundred friction measurements were performed on each floor surface under each surface condition. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov goodness-of-fit test was used to determine if the distribution of the ACOF was a good fit with the normal, log-normal and Weibull distributions. The results indicated that the ACOF distributions had a slightly better match with the normal and log-normal distributions than with the Weibull in only three out of 15 cases with a statistical significance. The results are far more complex than what had heretofore been published and different scenarios could emerge. Since the ACOF is compared with the RCOF for the estimate of slip probability, the distribution of the ACOF in seven cases could be considered a constant for this purpose when the ACOF is much lower or higher than the RCOF. A few cases could be represented by a normal distribution for practical reasons based on their skewness and kurtosis values without a statistical significance. No representation could be found in three cases out of 15.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ruey Chang
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, 71 Frankland Road, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA.
| | - Simon Matz
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, 71 Frankland Road, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA
| | - Chien-Chi Chang
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, 71 Frankland Road, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA
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Beschorner KE, Albert DL, Chambers AJ, Redfern MS. Fluid pressures at the shoe-floor-contaminant interface during slips: effects of tread and implications on slip severity. J Biomech 2014; 47:458-63. [PMID: 24267270 PMCID: PMC5760193 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2013.10.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2013] [Revised: 10/28/2013] [Accepted: 10/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Previous research on slip and fall accidents has suggested that pressurized fluid between the shoe and floor is responsible for initiating slips yet this effect has not been verified experimentally. This study aimed to (1) measure hydrodynamic pressures during slipping for treaded and untreaded conditions; (2) determine the effects of fluid pressure on slip severity; and (3) quantify how fluid pressures vary with instantaneous resultant slipping speed, position on the shoe surface, and throughout the progression of the slip. Eighteen subjects walked on known dry and unexpected slippery floors, while wearing treaded and untreaded shoes. Fluid pressure sensors, embedded in the floor, recorded hydrodynamic pressures during slipping. The maximum fluid pressures (mean+/-standard deviation) were significantly higher for the untreaded conditions (124+/-75 kPa) than the treaded conditions (1.1+/-0.29 kPa). Maximum fluid pressures were positively correlated with peak slipping speed (r=0.87), suggesting that higher fluid pressures, which are associated with untreaded conditions, resulted in more severe slips. Instantaneous resultant slipping speed and position of sensor relative to the shoe sole and walking direction explained 41% of the fluid pressure variability. Fluid pressures were primarily observed for untreaded conditions. This study confirms that fluid pressures are relevant to slipping events, consistent with fluid dynamics theory (i.e. the Reynolds equation), and can be modified with shoe tread design. The results suggest that the occurrence and severity of unexpected slips can be reduced by designing shoes/floors that reduce underfoot fluid pressures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt E Beschorner
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53201, United States.
| | - Devon L Albert
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - April J Chambers
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Mark S Redfern
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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Barry B, Milburn P. Tribology, friction and traction: understanding shoe-surface interaction. FOOTWEAR SCIENCE 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/19424280.2013.797030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Veijgen NK, van der Heide E, Masen MA. A multivariable model for predicting the frictional behaviour and hydration of the human skin. Skin Res Technol 2013; 19:330-8. [PMID: 23441726 DOI: 10.1111/srt.12053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The frictional characteristics of skin-object interactions are important when handling objects, in the assessment of perception and comfort of products and materials and in the origins and prevention of skin injuries. In this study, based on statistical methods, a quantitative model is developed that describes the friction behaviour of human skin as a function of the subject characteristics, contact conditions, the properties of the counter material as well as environmental conditions. AIMS Although the frictional behaviour of human skin is a multivariable problem, in literature the variables that are associated with skin friction have been studied using univariable methods. In this work, multivariable models for the static and dynamic coefficients of friction as well as for the hydration of the skin are presented. MATERIALS & METHODS A total of 634 skin-friction measurements were performed using a recently developed tribometer. Using a statistical analysis, previously defined potential influential variables were linked to the static and dynamic coefficient of friction and to the hydration of the skin, resulting in three predictive quantitative models that descibe the friction behaviour and the hydration of human skin respectively. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Increased dynamic coefficients of friction were obtained from older subjects, on the index finger, with materials with a higher surface energy at higher room temperatures, whereas lower dynamic coefficients of friction were obtained at lower skin temperatures, on the temple with rougher contact materials. The static coefficient of friction increased with higher skin hydration, increasing age, on the index finger, with materials with a higher surface energy and at higher ambient temperatures. The hydration of the skin was associated with the skin temperature, anatomical location, presence of hair on the skin and the relative air humidity. CONCLUSION Predictive models have been derived for the static and dynamic coefficient of friction using a multivariable approach. These two coefficients of friction show a strong correlation. Consequently the two multivariable models resemble, with the static coefficient of friction being on average 18% lower than the dynamic coefficient of friction. The multivariable models in this study can be used to describe the data set that was the basis for this study. Care should be taken when generalising these results.
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Affiliation(s)
- N K Veijgen
- Laboratory for Surface Technology and Tribology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
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34
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Older adults adopted more cautious gait patterns when walking in socks than barefoot. Gait Posture 2013; 37:88-92. [PMID: 22867560 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2012.06.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2011] [Revised: 05/28/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Walking barefoot or in socks is common for ambulating indoors and has been reported to be associated with increased risk of falls and related injuries in the elderly. This study sought to determine if gait patterns differed between these two conditions for young and older adults. A motion analysis system was used to record and calculate the stride characteristics and motion of the body's center of mass (COM) of 21 young and 20 older adults. For the walking tasks, the participants walked on a smooth floor surface at their preferred speed either barefoot or in socks in a random order. The socks were commercially available and commonly used. The results demonstrated that while walking in socks, compared with walking barefoot, older adults adopted a more cautious gait pattern including decreased walking speed and shortened stride length as well as reduced COM minimal velocity during the single limb support phase. Young adults, however, did not demonstrate significant changes. These findings suggest that walking with socks might present a greater balance threat for older adults. Clinically, safety precautions about walking in socks should be considered to be given to older adults, especially those with balance deficits.
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Tsai YJ, Powers CM. The influence of footwear sole hardness on slip characteristics and slip-induced falls in young adults. J Forensic Sci 2012; 58:46-50. [PMID: 23062013 DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2012.02296.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Revised: 11/30/2011] [Accepted: 12/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Theoretically, a shoe that provides less friction could result in a greater slip distance and foot slipping velocity, thereby increasing the likelihood of falling. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of sole hardness on the probability of slip-induced falls. Forty young adults were randomized into a hard or a soft sole shoe group, and tested under both nonslippery and slippery floor conditions using a motion analysis system. The proportions of fall events in the hard- and soft-soled shoe groups were not statistically different. No differences were observed between shoe groups for average slip distance, peak and average heel velocity, and center of mass slipping velocity. A strong association was found between slip distance and the fall probability. Our results demonstrate that the probability of a slip-induced fall was not influenced by shoe hardness. Once a slip is induced, slip distance was the primary predictor of a slip-induced fall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ju Tsai
- Department of Physical Therapy, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1 Ta-Hsueh Road, Tainan, 701, Taiwan.
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Beschorner KE, Singh G. A Novel Method for Evaluating the Effectiveness of Shoe-Tread Designs Relevant to Slip and Fall Accidents. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1177/1071181312561560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Slip and falls account for a large share of occupational accidents. Slips are typically initiated when an insufficient amount of friction is present between the shoe and floor surfaces during walking. Shoe tread is thought to enhance the friction by channeling fluid contaminants away from the shoe and floor surface thus mitigating the fluid’s ability to lubricate the two surfaces and reduce friction. This study presents a novel method for evaluating the effectiveness of shoe tread by measuring fluid pressures during simulated slips. Sensors embedded into the floor measured fluid pressure while a robotic slip-tester simulated a human slip. A work shoe with three different tread depths (no, medium and full tread) was tested against a vinyl floor using a diluted (90%) glycerol and diluted detergent (2% detergent, 98% water) contaminant. Fluid pressures were high in the no tread condition but negligible in the other two tread depth conditions for the diluted glycerol and were negligible for all diluted detergent conditions. The no tread (COF: 0.005) also had lower friction coefficient values than treaded conditions (COF: 0.08-0.38). This study suggests that the effectiveness of tread to reduce the lubricating quality of the fluid can be directly measured using a robotic slip-tester and a fluid pressure sensor embedded in the floor. This method has the potential for developing tread depth recommendations and in evaluating the validity of slip-testers to simulate under-shoe conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gurjeet Singh
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
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37
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Osis ST, Worobets JT, Stefanyshyn DJ. Early heelstrike kinetics are indicative of slip potential during walking over a contaminated surface. HUMAN FACTORS 2012; 54:5-13. [PMID: 22409098 DOI: 10.1177/0018720811427902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective of this study is to examine ground kinetics early in stance while walking on a contaminated surface and assess the potential of kinetics to quantify risk of slipping. BACKGROUND Prior studies of slipping have dismissed early ground kinetic data,and therefore no prior literature has been able to assess the viability of using these data to quantify slip potential. METHOD A total of 11 healthy male participants volunteered to walk over a force plate that was at random times contaminated with soap.Ground kinetics were measured by the force plate (2400 Hz), and heel displacement was quantified using high-speed video cameras (240 Hz) and retro-reflective markers. RESULTS The results indicated a significant reduction in shear force as early as 0.42 ms after heelstrike for contaminated trials, whereas for utilized coefficient of friction, a significant reduction was not seen until 11.34 ms. Heel displacements considered "safe" in the literature (< 30 mm) demonstrated proportionally different thresholds for shear force and utilized coefficient of friction. CONCLUSION The authors suggest that shear force in early stance shows more promise in quantifying slip potential as compared to utilized coefficient of friction given that (a) significant differences are seen earlier in shear than utilized coefficient of friction and (b) the threshold for utilized coefficient of friction, over which heel displacement stabilized to a"safe" value, exceeded values for utilized coefficient of friction that have been recommended as "safe". APPLICATION These results have wide implications for standards related to the design and testing of interventions to prevent injuries because of slipping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean T Osis
- University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
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Chang WR, Chang CC, Matz S. Comparison of different methods to extract the required coefficient of friction for level walking. ERGONOMICS 2012; 55:308-315. [PMID: 22409168 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2011.642008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The required coefficient of friction (RCOF) is an important predictor for slip incidents. Despite the wide use of the RCOF there is no standardised method for identifying the RCOF from ground reaction forces. This article presents a comparison of the outcomes from seven different methods, derived from those reported in the literature, for identifying the RCOF from the same data. While commonly used methods are based on a normal force threshold, percentage of stance phase or time from heel contact, a newly introduced hybrid method is based on a combination of normal force, time and direction of increase in coefficient of friction. Although no major differences were found with these methods in more than half the strikes, significant differences were found in a significant portion of strikes. Potential problems with some of these methods were identified and discussed and they appear to be overcome by the hybrid method. PRACTITIONER SUMMARY No standard method exists for determining the required coefficient of friction (RCOF), an important predictor for slipping. In this study, RCOF values from a single data set, using various methods from the literature, differed considerably for a significant portion of strikes. A hybrid method may yield improved results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ruey Chang
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, 71 Frankland Road, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA.
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Chang WR, Matz S, Chang CC. Stochastic distribution of the required coefficient of friction for level walking--an in-depth study. ERGONOMICS 2012; 55:937-45. [PMID: 22676317 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2012.683880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED This study investigated the stochastic distribution of the required coefficient of friction (RCOF) which is a critical element for estimating slip probability. Fifty participants walked under four walking conditions. The results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample test indicate that 76% of the RCOF data showed a difference in distribution between both feet for the same participant under each walking condition; the data from both feet were kept separate. The results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov goodness-of-fit test indicate that most of the distribution of the RCOF appears to have a good match with the normal (85.5%), log-normal (84.5%) and Weibull distributions (81.5%). However, approximately 7.75% of the cases did not have a match with any of these distributions. It is reasonable to use the normal distribution for representation of the RCOF distribution due to its simplicity and familiarity, but each foot had a different distribution from the other foot in 76% of cases. PRACTITIONER SUMMARY The stochastic distribution of the required coefficient of friction (RCOF) was investigated for use in a statistical model to improve the estimate of slip probability in risk assessment. The results indicate that 85.5% of the distribution of the RCOF appears to have a good match with the normal distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ruey Chang
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA.
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Chang WR, Matz S, Grönqvist R, Hirvonen M. Linear regression models of floor surface parameters on friction between Neolite and quarry tiles. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2010; 41:27-33. [PMID: 19427994 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2009.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2008] [Revised: 02/11/2009] [Accepted: 03/20/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
For slips and falls, friction is widely used as an indicator of surface slipperiness. Surface parameters, including surface roughness and waviness, were shown to influence friction by correlating individual surface parameters with the measured friction. A collective input from multiple surface parameters as a predictor of friction, however, could provide a broader perspective on the contributions from all the surface parameters evaluated. The objective of this study was to develop regression models between the surface parameters and measured friction. The dynamic friction was measured using three different mixtures of glycerol and water as contaminants. Various surface roughness and waviness parameters were measured using three different cut-off lengths. The regression models indicate that the selected surface parameters can predict the measured friction coefficient reliably in most of the glycerol concentrations and cut-off lengths evaluated. The results of the regression models were, in general, consistent with those obtained from the correlation between individual surface parameters and the measured friction in eight out of nine conditions evaluated in this experiment. A hierarchical regression model was further developed to evaluate the cumulative contributions of the surface parameters in the final iteration by adding these parameters to the regression model one at a time from the easiest to measure to the most difficult to measure and evaluating their impacts on the adjusted R(2) values. For practical purposes, the surface parameter R(a) alone would account for the majority of the measured friction even if it did not reach a statistically significant level in some of the regression models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ruey Chang
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, 71 Frankland Road, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA.
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41
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Chang WR, Li KW, Filiaggi A, Huang YH, Courtney TK. Friction variation in common working areas of fast-food restaurants in the USA. ERGONOMICS 2008; 51:1998-2012. [PMID: 19034789 DOI: 10.1080/00140130802562641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Friction variation has been related to employees' perception of slipperiness in a field study conducted in fast-food restaurants. However, details of friction variation in actual workplaces have not been reported in the literature. This field study investigated friction variations in 10 fast-food restaurants in the USA. The results indicated that friction reductions in a step exceeding 10% were proportional to the ages of the floor tiles in most restaurants. There were more friction reductions exceeding 10% in the sink areas than the other five areas measured, but all the areas had more than 10% friction reductions in at least one of the restaurants. As expected, significant relative friction reductions are common on older floors. A small portion of the newer tiles had significant relative friction reductions, despite their overall higher friction levels. Therefore, slip and fall preventions should not be overlooked in restaurants with newer floors. Friction variation is speculated to be a significant contributor to slip and fall incidents. However, friction variation has not been quantified in the literature. Understanding of potential friction variations in field environments helps identify potential issues for interventions. This field study investigated friction variations in fast-food restaurants in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ruey Chang
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA.
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Beschorner K, Cham R. Impact of joint torques on heel acceleration at heel contact, a contributor to slips and falls. ERGONOMICS 2008; 51:1799-813. [PMID: 18937108 DOI: 10.1080/00140130802136479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Slips/falls are a health burden in the workplace. Previous research has implied a relationship between foot dynamics at heel contact and slips/falls; however, heel acceleration has received little attention. Heel acceleration as the heel contacts the ground is the result of the combined effort of the leg joint torques to control motion of the foot. This study aims to examine the association of heel acceleration with fall risk, and explore the main joint torque determinant of heel acceleration at contact. Sixteen young and eleven older adults walked on known dry floors and in slippery environments expected to be dry. Heel acceleration at heel contact in the direction of motion, i.e. anterior/posterior, was compared between slip-recovery and slip-fall outcomes. Results showed that subjects that recovered contacted the floor with a greater heel deceleration (p < 0.05) than fall subjects. Knee torque alone explained 76% of the heel acceleration variability (p < 0.01). These data suggest that walking with reduced knee flexion torque at heel contact results in a reduced heel deceleration, a potential risk factor for slip-initiated falls.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Beschorner
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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43
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Chang WR, Lesch MF, Chang CC. The effect of contact area on friction measured with the portable inclinable articulated strut slip tester (PIAST). ERGONOMICS 2008; 51:1984-1997. [PMID: 19034788 DOI: 10.1080/00140130802562633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
A portable inclinable articulated strut slip tester (PIAST) measures friction at the shoe and floor interface. The squeeze-film effect with the PIAST is excessive in representing a human strike. The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of the contact area size on friction for reducing the squeeze-film effect. The footwear pad area of this slip meter was sequentially reduced from 7.62 cm square to 2.54 cm square. Five walkways were constructed. Friction was measured on each walkway under three surface conditions. Thirty-five participants rated their perceptions of slipperiness. The results indicated that the friction increased and plateaued as the size of the contact area was reduced. The effect of the pad size on the friction coefficient was statistically significant. The correlation coefficients between the friction and perception rating did not give a clear indication of what pad size might have a better correlation with human perception. Friction measurement at the shoe and floor interface is a critical issue in assessing potential interventions and identifying potentially dangerous locations for slip and fall incidents. This paper addresses a potential improvement in measuring friction on liquid-contaminated floor surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ruey Chang
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA.
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Houser JJ, Decker L, Stergiou N. Stepping over obstacles of different heights and varied shoe traction alter the kinetic strategies of the leading limb. ERGONOMICS 2008; 51:1847-1859. [PMID: 18608479 DOI: 10.1080/00140130701749893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
This study aims to investigate the effects of shoe traction and obstacle height on friction during walking to better understand the mechanisms required to avoid slippage following obstacle clearance. Ten male subjects walked at a self-selected pace during eight different conditions: four obstacle heights (0%, 10%, 20% and 40% of limb length) while wearing two different pairs of shoes (low and high traction). Frictional forces were calculated from the ground reaction forces following obstacle clearance, which were sampled with a Kistler platform at 960 Hz. All frictional peaks increased with increases in obstacle height. Low traction shoes yielded smaller peaks than high traction shoes. The transition from braking to propulsion occurred sooner due to altered control strategies with increased obstacle height. Collectively, these results provided insights into kinetic strategies of leading limb when confronted with low traction and high obstacle environments. This study provides valuable information into the adaptations used to reduce the potential of slips/falls when confronted with environments characterised by low shoe-floor friction and obstacles. It also provides the necessary foundation to explore the combined effects of shoe traction and obstacle clearance in elderly people, more sensitive to slippage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy James Houser
- Department of Health and Exercise Sciences, School of Health Sciences and Education, Truman State University, Kirksville, MO 63501, USA
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45
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Chang WR, Chang CC, Matz S, Lesch MF. A methodology to quantify the stochastic distribution of friction coefficient required for level walking. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2008; 39:766-771. [PMID: 18187104 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2007.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2007] [Revised: 11/05/2007] [Accepted: 11/17/2007] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The required friction coefficient is defined as the minimum friction needed at the shoe and floor interface to support human locomotion. The available friction is the maximum friction coefficient that can be supported without a slip at the shoe and floor interface. A statistical model was recently introduced to estimate the probability of slip and fall incidents by comparing the available friction with the required friction, assuming that both the available and required friction coefficients have stochastic distributions. This paper presents a methodology to investigate the stochastic distributions of the required friction coefficient for level walking. In this experiment, a walkway with a layout of three force plates was specially designed in order to capture a large number of successful strikes without causing fatigue in participants. The required coefficient of friction data of one participant, who repeatedly walked on this walkway under four different walking conditions, is presented as an example of the readiness of the methodology examined in this paper. The results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov goodness-of-fit test indicated that the required friction coefficient generated from each foot and walking condition by this participant appears to fit the normal, log-normal or Weibull distributions with few exceptions. Among these three distributions, the normal distribution appears to fit all the data generated with this participant. The average of successful strikes for each walk achieved with three force plates in this experiment was 2.49, ranging from 2.14 to 2.95 for each walking condition. The methodology and layout of the experimental apparatus presented in this paper are suitable for being applied to a full-scale study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ruey Chang
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, 71 Frankland Road, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA.
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Chang WR, Huang YH, Way Li K, Filiaggi A, Courtney TK. Assessing slipperiness in fast-food restaurants in the USA using friction variation, friction level and perception rating. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2008; 39:359-67. [PMID: 17953941 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2007.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2006] [Accepted: 08/26/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Although friction variation is speculated to be a significant contributor to slip and fall incidents, it has not been related to a measurement of slipperiness in the literature. This field study investigated the relationship among multiple friction variations, friction levels and the perception ratings of slipperiness in six major working areas of 10 fast-food restaurants in the USA. The mean perception rating score for each working area was correlated with various friction reduction variables across all the restaurants in comparison with its correlation with the mean friction coefficient of each working area. The results indicated that the absolute and relative reductions in friction over the whole working area, among 12 friction reduction variables evaluated, could have a slightly better correlation with the perception rating score (r=0.34 and 0.37, respectively) than the mean friction coefficient of each working area (0.33). However, in friction measurements, more effort and time are needed to quantify friction variations than to obtain the mean friction coefficient. The results of the multiple regression model on the perception rating indicated that adding friction reduction variables into the regression model, in addition to the mean friction coefficient, did not make a significant impact on the outcomes. The results further indicated a statistically significant correlation between the mean friction coefficient and the maximum relative friction reduction over the whole area in each working area across all the restaurants evaluated (r=0.80). Despite a slightly lower correlation with perception rating than the friction variation, the mean friction coefficient of an area is still a reasonably good indicator of slipperiness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ruey Chang
- Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA.
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47
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Kim IJ, Nagata H. Research on slip resistance measurements--a new challenge. INDUSTRIAL HEALTH 2008; 46:66-76. [PMID: 18270452 DOI: 10.2486/indhealth.46.66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Slips, trips and falls are one of the most common causes of injuries and fatalities in the general community and industry. The control of such incidents involves a complex array of factors including the characteristics of each individual's footwear and gait dynamics, walking and working surfaces, and environmental conditions. Notwithstanding this complexity, slip resistance properties have been widely measured as a form of coefficient of friction (COF) index at the sliding interface between the shoes and floors. Since the COF measurements were commonly adopted to evaluate slip potentials, it has been found that there were controversies in the interpretation of COF measurement results. This study, therefore, was principally focused on broadening the knowledge base and developing new ideas on which improvements in the validity and reliability of slip resistance measurements might be made. To achieve this goal, crucial problems on the current concept of slip resistance measurement were extensively analysed by a tribological point of view where principle understanding of the shoe-floor friction and wear phenomena could be made. Based on this approach, new theoretical models were suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- In-Ju Kim
- University of Exeter, Heavitree Road, Exeter, Devon, UK
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Beschorner KE, Redfern MS, Porter WL, Debski RE. Effects of slip testing parameters on measured coefficient of friction. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2007; 38:773-80. [PMID: 17196925 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2006.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2005] [Accepted: 10/26/2006] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Slips and falls are a major cause of injuries in the workplace. Devices that measure coefficient of friction (COF) of the shoe-floor-contaminant interface are used to evaluate slip resistance in various environments. Testing conditions (e.g. loading rate, timing, normal force, speed, shoe angle) are believed to affect COF measurements; however, the nature of that relationship is not well understood. This study examines the effects of normal force (NF), speed, and shoe angle on COF within physiologically relevant ranges. A polyvinyl chloride shoe was tested using a modified industrial robot that could attain high vertical loads and relatively high speeds. Ground reaction forces were measured with a loadcell to compute COF. Experiment #1 measured COF over a range of NF ( approximately 100-500 N) for two shoe angles (10 degrees and 20 degrees ), four speeds (0.05, 0.20, 0.35, and 0.50 m/s), and two contaminants (diluted detergent and diluted glycerol). Experiment #2 further explored speed effect by testing seven speeds (0.01, 0.05, 0.20, 0.35, 0.50, 0.75, and 1.00 m/s) at a given NF (350 N) and shoe angle (20 degrees ) using the same two contaminants. Experiment #1 showed that faster speeds significantly decreased COF, and that a complex interaction existed between NF and shoe angle. Experiment #2 showed that increasing speed decreased COF asymptotically. The results imply that COF is dependent on film thickness separating the shoe and the heel, which is dependent on speed, shoe angle, and NF, consistent with tribological theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt E Beschorner
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 749 Benedum Hall, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
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Powers CM, Brault JR, Stefanou MA, Tsai YJ, Flynn J, Siegmund GP. Assessment of Walkway Tribometer Readings in Evaluating Slip Resistance: A Gait-Based Approach. J Forensic Sci 2007; 52:400-5. [PMID: 17316240 DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2007.00386.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to assess the viability of using slip risk (as quantified during human subject walking trials) to create a reference standard against which tribometer readings could be compared. First, human subjects (N=84) were used to rank objectively the slipperiness of three different surfaces with and without a contaminant (six conditions). Second, nine tribometers were used to independently measure and rank surface slipperiness for all six conditions. The slipperiness ranking determined from the walking trials was considered the reference against which the tribometer measurements were compared. Our results revealed that only two of the nine tribometers tested (Tortus II and Mark III) met our compliance criteria by both correctly ranking all six conditions and differentiating between surfaces of differing degrees of slipperiness. These findings reinforce the need for objective criteria to ascertain which tribometers effectively evaluate floor slipperiness and a pedestrian's risk of slipping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher M Powers
- Musculoskeletal Biomechanics Research Laboratory, Department Biokinesiology & Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, 1540 E. Alacazar St., CHP-155, Los Angeles, CA 90089-9006, USA.
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Moyer BE, Chambers AJ, Redfern MS, Cham R. Gait parameters as predictors of slip severity in younger and older adults. ERGONOMICS 2006; 49:329-43. [PMID: 16690563 DOI: 10.1080/00140130500478553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the association between slip severity and pre-slip gait characteristics of younger and older subjects. Sixteen younger and eleven older healthy adults walked onto an unexpectedly slippery surface. Slip severity was categorized as either hazardous or non-hazardous using a 1.0 ms peak slip velocity threshold. The results showed that hazardous slips were associated with greater step lengths (normalized by leg length) (SLR), larger and more rapidly changing foot - floor angles (FFA) at heel strike, and increased cadence across the two subject groups. Older subjects were found to walk with shorter SLR and with smaller and more slowly changing FFA at heel strike compared to younger subjects. However, both younger and older subjects experienced hazardous slips at the same rate. A logistic regression model relating SLR and cadence to slip severity predicted that increased SLR and decreased cadence would result in increased probability of hazardous slip (R2 = 0.45, chi2 = 15.30, p<0.01). A second logistic regression model relating FFA with slip severity predicted that increased FFA would result in increased probability of hazardous slip (R2 = 0.53, chi2 = 16.55, p<0.01). These results suggest that gait characteristics prior to foot contact play an important role in the severity of an ensuing slip. The finding that older adults experienced hazardous slips at the same rate as young adults even though their SLR and FFA are smaller suggests that age is also playing a role in other aspects of postural control that impact slip severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- B E Moyer
- Human Movement and Balance Laboratory, Department of Bioengineering, 749 Benedum Hall, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA.
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