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Devi Subramanian L, Sherony R, Kearney JK, Plumert JM, O'Neal EE. How do bicyclists respond to vehicles with adaptive headlamp systems? A nighttime study in an immersive virtual environment. JOURNAL OF SAFETY RESEARCH 2024; 88:24-30. [PMID: 38485366 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsr.2023.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The risk of motor vehicle-bicyclist crashes and fatalities is greater during nighttime than daytime lighting conditions, even though there are fewer cyclists on roadways at night. Vehicle Adaptive Headlamp Systems (AHS) aim to increase the visibility of bicyclists for drivers by directing a spotlight to illuminate bicyclists on or near the roadway. AHS technology also serves to alert bicyclists to the approaching vehicle by illuminating the road beneath the rider and by projecting a warning icon on the roadway. METHOD Here, we examined how bicyclists respond to different AHS designs using a large screen, immersive virtual environment. Participants bicycled along a virtual road during nighttime lighting conditions and were overtaken by vehicles with and without an AHS system. The experiment included five treatment conditions with five different AHS designs. In each design a box of white light was projected beneath the rider; in four of the designs an icon was also projected on the road that varied in color (white or red) and position (to the left of the rider at midline or to the left of the front wheel). Participants in the control condition experienced only non-AHS vehicles. RESULTS We found that riders in all AHS treatment conditions moved significantly farther away from overtaking vehicles with AHS systems, whereas riders in the control condition did not significantly move away from overtaking vehicles without AHS systems. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS The experiment demonstrates that AHS has potential to increase bicycling safety by influencing riders to steer away from overtaking vehicles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rini Sherony
- Collaborative Safety Research Center, Toyota Motor North America, USA
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Nageswara Rao A, Jeyapaul R, Najar SA, Chaitanya B. Driving errors as a function of listening to music and FM radio: A simulator study. TRAFFIC INJURY PREVENTION 2023; 25:49-56. [PMID: 37815797 DOI: 10.1080/15389588.2023.2263119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Driving is a dynamic activity that takes place in a constantly changing environment, carrying safety implications not only for the driver but also for other road users. Despite the potentially life-threatening consequences of incorrect driving behavior, drivers often engage in activities unrelated to driving. This study aims to investigate the frequency and types of errors committed by drivers when they are distracted compared to when they are not distracted. METHODS A total of 64 young male participants volunteered for the study, completing four driving trials in a driving simulator. The trials consisted of different distraction conditions: listening to researcher-selected music, driver-selected music, FM radio conversation, and driving without any auditory distractions. The simulated driving scenario resembled a semi-urban environment, with a track length of 12 km. RESULTS The findings of the study indicate that drivers are more prone to making errors when engaged in FM radio conversations compared to listening to music. Additionally, errors related to speeding were found to be more prevalent across all experimental conditions. CONCLUSIONS These results emphasize the significance of reducing distractions while driving to improve road safety. The findings add to our understanding of the particular distractions that carry higher risks and underscore the necessity for focused interventions to reduce driver errors, especially related to FM radio conversations. Future research can delve into additional factors that contribute to driving errors and develop effective strategies to promote safer driving practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Nageswara Rao
- Ergonomics Laboratory, Department of Production Engineering, National Institute of Technology - Tiruchirappalli, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - R Jeyapaul
- Ergonomics Laboratory, Department of Production Engineering, National Institute of Technology - Tiruchirappalli, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Sajad Ahmad Najar
- Department of Psychology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
| | - B Chaitanya
- Cognitive Science Research Centre, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lakireddy Bali Reddy College of Engineering, Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh, India
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Li J, Zhou Y, Ge Y, Qu W. Sensation seeking predicts risky driving behavior: The mediating role of difficulties in emotion regulation. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2023; 43:1871-1886. [PMID: 36314116 DOI: 10.1111/risa.14066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to explore the mediating effect of difficulties in emotion regulation on the relationship between sensation seeking and driving behavior based on the dual-process model of aberrant driving behavior. A sample of 299 drivers in China completed the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, the Driver Behavior Questionnaire, and the Sensation Seeking Scale V (SSS). The relationships among sensation seeking, difficulties in emotion regulation, and driving behavior were investigated using pathway analysis. The results showed that (1) disinhibition and boredom susceptibility are positively and significantly related to difficulties in emotion regulation and risky driving behaviors; (2) difficulties in emotion regulation are positively and significantly associated with risky driving behaviors; (3) difficulties in emotion regulation mediate the effect of sensation seeking on driving behaviors, supporting the dual-process model of driving behavior; and (4) professional drivers score higher in terms of difficulties in emotion regulation and risky driving behaviors than nonprofessional drivers. The findings of this study could provide valuable insights into the selection of suitable drivers and the development of certain programs that benefit road safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Ge
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Weina Qu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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Khanganba SP, Najar SA. In-Vehicle Interaction Systems, Eye Movements, and Safety. Percept Mot Skills 2023; 130:127-148. [PMID: 36214664 DOI: 10.1177/00315125221132086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In-vehicle interactive systems are widely used in modern vehicles. While these systems serve various purposes, they are also potential distracters for drivers. In this study we investigated the effect of in-vehicle spatial distractions on driving errors and driver gaze behavior by developing an experimental paradigm named, "Direction Following in Distracted Driving - Spatial: Simultaneous and Sequential (D3-SSS)." Twenty-seven drivers voluntarily participated and were required to drive an instrumented vehicle on a two-lane test-track, following directions shown on direction signboards. While driving, drivers were required to respond to in-vehicle spatial distracting stimuli presented to them through a monitor attached to the dashboard. The drivers were randomly assigned to in-vehicle spatial-simultaneous and spatial-sequential distraction conditions. Our results demonstrated that, in comparison with spatial-sequential distractions, there were shorter eye fixation durations and fewer eye fixation counts on areas of interest (AOIs) during spatial-simultaneous distractions. We also found that drivers committed more driving errors during in-vehicle spatial-simultaneous distractions than when these were not occurring. In conclusion, drivers committed more slips than lapses, and spatial-simultaneous distraction was more detrimental to driving performance than was spatial-sequential distraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjram Premjit Khanganba
- Human Factors & Applied Cognition Lab, 226957Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Indore, India.,Discipline of Psychology, 226957Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Indore, India.,Center for Electric Vehicles and Intelligent Transport Systems, 226957Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Indore, India.,Department of Biosciences and Biomedical Engineering, 226957Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Indore, India.,Centre of Futuristic Defense and Space Technologies, 226957Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Indore, India
| | - Sajad Ahmad Najar
- Department of Psychology, 231505Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, India
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A Simulation-based Study of the Effect of Brake Light Flashing Frequency on Driver Brake Behavior from the Perspective of Response Time. Behav Sci (Basel) 2022; 12:bs12090332. [PMID: 36135136 PMCID: PMC9495388 DOI: 10.3390/bs12090332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
To prevent vehicle crashes, studies have proposed the use of flashing signals (brake lights or other light indicators) to improve the driver’s response time when the leading vehicle is braking. However, there are no consistent results on the ideal flashing frequency of the brake lights. This study aimed to investigate different brake light flashing frequencies to assess their impact on braking response time. Twenty-four participants aged 25 to 30 were recruited. Two driving speed environments (50 and 80 km/h), three deceleration rates (0.25, 0.6, and 1 g), and four brake light flashing frequencies (0, 2, 4, and 7 Hz) were examined. Braking response time, average braking force, and braking response time ratio were used to evaluate the driving behavior. The results showed that the braking response time and average braking force were affected by the deceleration rate in the 50 km/h driving environment. In the 50 and 80 km/h driving environments, although there were no significant differences among the three deceleration rates, the braking response time decreased by 3–7% under the flashing brake light condition. These findings can be used as a reference for safety designs as well as future studies on driving behavior.
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Stapel J, El Hassnaoui M, Happee R. Measuring Driver Perception: Combining Eye-Tracking and Automated Road Scene Perception. HUMAN FACTORS 2022; 64:714-731. [PMID: 32993382 PMCID: PMC9136390 DOI: 10.1177/0018720820959958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate how well gaze behavior can indicate driver awareness of individual road users when related to the vehicle's road scene perception. BACKGROUND An appropriate method is required to identify how driver gaze reveals awareness of other road users. METHOD We developed a recognition-based method for labeling of driver situation awareness (SA) in a vehicle with road-scene perception and eye tracking. Thirteen drivers performed 91 left turns on complex urban intersections and identified images of encountered road users among distractor images. RESULTS Drivers fixated within 2° for 72.8% of relevant and 27.8% of irrelevant road users and were able to recognize 36.1% of the relevant and 19.4% of irrelevant road users one min after leaving the intersection. Gaze behavior could predict road user relevance but not the outcome of the recognition task. Unexpectedly, 18% of road users observed beyond 10° were recognized. CONCLUSIONS Despite suboptimal psychometric properties leading to low recognition rates, our recognition task could identify awareness of individual road users during left turn maneuvers. Perception occurred at gaze angles well beyond 2°, which means that fixation locations are insufficient for awareness monitoring. APPLICATION Findings can be used in driver attention and awareness modelling, and design of gaze-based driver support systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jork Stapel
- Delft University of Technology, Netherlands
- Jork Stapel, Faculty of Mechanical Maritime and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2Delft, 2628 CD, Netherlands;
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Subramanian LD, O'Neal EE, Mallaro S, Williams B, Sherony R, Plumert JM, Kearney JK. A comparison of daytime and nighttime pedestrian road-crossing behavior using an immersive virtual environment. TRAFFIC INJURY PREVENTION 2022; 23:97-101. [PMID: 35100060 DOI: 10.1080/15389588.2021.2023738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Reduced visibility for both drivers and pedestrians is a key factor underlying the higher risk of vehicle-pedestrian collisions in dark conditions. This study investigated the extent to which pedestrians adjust for the higher risk of road crossing at night by comparing daytime and nighttime pedestrian road crossing using an immersive virtual environment. METHOD Participants physically crossed a single lane of continuous traffic in an immersive pedestrian simulator. Participants were randomly assigned to either the daytime or the nighttime lighting condition. The primary measures were the size of the gap selected for crossing and the timing of crossing motions relative to the gap. RESULTS The results showed that there were no significant differences in gap selection or movement timing in daytime vs. nighttime lighting conditions. However, there was a marginal increase in the time to spare after crossing the road when crossing in the dark, likely due to an accumulation of small differences in gap choices and movement timing. CONCLUSION This study suggests that pedestrians do not adjust their road crossing to account for greater risk at night. As such, this study adds to our understanding of the potential risk factors for pedestrian injuries and fatalities in nighttime conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elizabeth E O'Neal
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Sophia Mallaro
- Department of Computer Science, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Breanna Williams
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | | | - Jodie M Plumert
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Joseph K Kearney
- Department of Computer Science, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
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Ekroll V, Svalebjørg M, Pirrone A, Böhm G, Jentschke S, van Lier R, Wagemans J, Høye A. The illusion of absence: how a common feature of magic shows can explain a class of road accidents. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2021; 6:22. [PMID: 33763762 PMCID: PMC7991007 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-021-00287-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the present note is to draw attention to the potential role of a recently discovered visual illusion in creating traffic accidents. The illusion consists in a compelling and immediate experience that the space behind an occluding object in the foreground is empty. Although the illusion refers to a region of space, which is invisible due to occlusion (a blind spot), there is evidence to suggest that it is nevertheless driven by visual mechanisms and that it can be just as deceptive and powerful as ordinary visual illusions. We suggest that this novel illusion can make situations involving blind spots in a road user's field of view even more dangerous than one would expect based on the lack of visibility by itself. This could be because it erroneously makes the road user feel that (s)he has actually seen everything there is to see, and thus has verified that the blind spot is empty. This hypothesis requires further testing before definitive conclusions can be drawn, but we wish to make researchers and authorities involved in the analysis of traffic accidents and on-the-spot crash investigations aware of its potential role in order to encourage registration of relevant data and facilitate further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vebjørn Ekroll
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Postboks 7807, 5020, Bergen, Norway.
| | - Mats Svalebjørg
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Postboks 7807, 5020, Bergen, Norway
| | - Angelo Pirrone
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Postboks 7807, 5020, Bergen, Norway
| | - Gisela Böhm
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Postboks 7807, 5020, Bergen, Norway
| | - Sebastian Jentschke
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Postboks 7807, 5020, Bergen, Norway
| | - Rob van Lier
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Johan Wagemans
- Department of Brain & Cognition, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Alena Høye
- Department of Safety and Security, Institute of Transport Economics, Oslo, Norway
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Lantieri C, Costa M, Vignali V, Acerra EM, Marchetti P, Simone A. Flashing in-curb LEDs and beacons at unsignalized crosswalks and driver's visual attention to pedestrians during nighttime. ERGONOMICS 2021; 64:330-341. [PMID: 33026307 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2020.1834149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Driver's visual attention (eye movements) and driving behaviour (kinematic data) were assessed when approaching an experimental crosswalk that included flashing white in-curb LED strips, flashing orange beacons, backlit 'Yield here to pedestrians' vertical signs, and enhanced lighting when a staged pedestrian attempted to cross. An experimental condition in which all devices were active was compared with a control condition in which only enhanced lighting and backlit vertical signs were active. The results showed a significant increase of motorists' yielding compliance, distance of first fixation to the pedestrian area, standard deviation for horizontal eye movements in the experimental condition. The introduction of flashing in-curb LED strips and flashing orange beacons proved to be very effective in increasing the night-time safety of the pedestrian crossing. Practitioner summary: The study investigated the effects of flashing in-curb LED strips and beacons on driver's visual attention (eye movements) and speed when approaching a crosswalk during night-time. The results showed that the combination of these flashing devices significantly increased yielding compliance and the distance of pedestrian detection. Abbreviations: ANOVA: analysis of variance; EU: European Union; HAWK: high intensity activated crosswalk system; LED: light-emitting diode; PHB: pedestrian hybrid beacons; ROI: region of interest; RRFB: rectangular rapid flashing beacons; UK: United Kingdom; US: United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Lantieri
- Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Material Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marco Costa
- Environmental Psychology Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Valeria Vignali
- Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Material Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Ennia Mariapaola Acerra
- Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Material Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Pierclaudio Marchetti
- Environmental Psychology Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Andrea Simone
- Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Material Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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Huang YY. A sudden variation in the visual field reduces driver's accuracy in estimation of the speed of the car ahead. ERGONOMICS 2020; 63:1371-1379. [PMID: 32628067 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2020.1793007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We offer the hypothesis that a variation in the visual environment of a driver affects their performance in estimating the speed of a car in front. The hypothesis was tested in a driving simulator with 18 drivers by recording their ability to estimate the relative speed of a car ahead when exposed to sudden variations in the visual environment. The sudden variation was produced by briefly (200 ms) masking the driving environment with a grey frame. The results of our study confirm the hypothesis, as the flashed mask significantly lowered the drivers' accuracy in estimating the speed of a car ahead. The results also show that it is possible to cope with variations in the visual environment and to partially recover from the loss of accuracy. The findings are relevant to the layout of driving environments, such as the placement of dynamic advertisements along the side of the road or the entrance zones of tunnels, and to the training of drivers. Practitioner summary: In our driving simulator study, we showed that sudden transitions in the visual environment reduce a driver's performance in evaluating the speed of the car ahead and are therefore a factor in accidents and traffic jams. Transitions should be limited, and drivers should be prepared for the effect of transitions. Abbreviation: ANOVA: analysis of variance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Yin Huang
- Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
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Edewaard DE, Fekety DK, Szubski EC, Tyrrell RA. Highlighting Bicyclist Biological Motion Enhances Their Conspicuity in Daylight. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2020; 142:105575. [PMID: 32408145 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2020.105575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
For safety purposes, it is critical that bicyclists be conspicuous to drivers. We report two experiments that investigated the benefits of bicycle taillights and fluorescent clothing for enhancing the bicyclist's rear conspicuity in daylight. In Experiment 1, 24 participants sat in a car parked on a closed road at each of three distances and rated the conspicuity of four bicyclists displaying taillights that varied in their placement, intensity, and mode. The results confirmed that bicycle taillights can significantly enhance conspicuity in daylight. Varying the placement of the taillights revealed that having an "always on" taillight mounted to each of the rider's ankles was the most conspicuous location to mount taillights, and this effect was particularly strong at greater viewing distances. For seat post-mounted taillights, flashing taillights were rated as more conspicuous. In Experiment 2, 186 participants were passengers on a short drive during which they pressed a button each time they recognized that a bicyclist was present. Each participant passed a test bicyclist wearing one of four clothing configurations. When the cyclist wore a fluorescent yellow jersey paired with fluorescent yellow leg covers, participants responded from a distance that was 3.3 times greater than when the cyclist wore the same jersey without the yellow leg covers. Both of these experiments demonstrate that highlighting bicyclists' pedaling motion enhances their conspicuity when viewed from behind. These results further emphasize the conspicuity benefits of biological motion and provide bicyclists with techniques to enhance their own conspicuity in daylight.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Drea K Fekety
- Department of Psychology, Clemson University, United States
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12
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DeVault TL, Seamans TW, Blackwell BF. Frontal vehicle illumination via rear‐facing lighting reduces potential for collisions with white‐tailed deer. Ecosphere 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Travis L. DeVault
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Wildlife Services National Wildlife Research Center Sandusky Ohio44870USA
| | - Thomas W. Seamans
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Wildlife Services National Wildlife Research Center Sandusky Ohio44870USA
| | - Bradley F. Blackwell
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Wildlife Services National Wildlife Research Center Sandusky Ohio44870USA
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Higuchi Y, Inoue S, Hamada H, Kumada T. Artificial Optic Flow Guides Visual Attention in a Driving Scene. HUMAN FACTORS 2020; 62:578-588. [PMID: 31125278 DOI: 10.1177/0018720819847022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to investigate whether an artificial optic flow created by dot motion guides attention in a driving scene. BACKGROUND To achieve safe driving, it is essential to understand the characteristics of human visual information processing as well as to provide appropriate support for drivers. Past research has demonstrated that expanding optic flow guides visual attention to the focus of expansion. Optic flow is an attractive candidate for use as a cue to direct drivers' attention toward the significant information. The question addressed concerns whether an artificial optic flow can successfully guide attention even in a traffic situation involving the optic flow that naturally occurs while driving. METHOD We developed a visual search paradigm embedded in a video of a driving scene. Participants first observed an optic flow motion pattern superimposed on the video for brief period; next, when the optic flow and video ceased, they searched a static display for a target among multiple distractors. RESULTS The target detection was faster when a target's locus coincided with the implied focus of expansion from the preceding optic flow (vs. other loci). CONCLUSION The artificial optic flow guides attention and facilitates searching objects at the focus of expansion even when the optic flow was superimposed on a driving scene. APPLICATION Optic flow can be an effective cue for guiding drivers' attention in a traffic situation. This finding contributes to the understanding of visual attention in moving space and helps develop technology for traffic safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Higuchi
- National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Chiba, Japan
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Yadav AK, Velaga NR. An investigation on the risk factors associated with driving errors under the influence of alcohol using structural equation modeling. TRAFFIC INJURY PREVENTION 2020; 21:288-294. [PMID: 32364839 DOI: 10.1080/15389588.2020.1753039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Objective: Driving errors contribute to traffic crashes and thus the causal factors associated with driving errors are of great interest to the road safety researchers. The present study attempts to identify and quantify the effects of various risk factors that are likely to influence driving error with the application of structural equation modeling (SEM). These risk factors include blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels (0%, 0.03%, 0.05%, and 0.08%), different driving environments (rural, urban), and driver attributes (such as age, gender, education).Method: Eighty-two licensed drivers participated in a driving simulator experiment. They completed driving under the influence of 4 BAC levels in the driving environments within the framework of a full-factorial within-subjects design. Driving error was modeled as an unobserved latent variable based on several driving simulator indicators. An SEM approach was utilized to examine the influence of BAC level, driving environment, and driver attributes on the latent variable pertaining to driving error.Results: The findings suggest the suitability of an SEM approach in the investigation of driving error. The results revealed that all 3 positive BACs (0.03%, 0.05%, and 0.08%) had a significant positive influence on driving error compared to 0% BAC, and the tendency toward driving error increased with increasing BAC (factor loadings for 0.03%, 0.05%, and 0.08% BAC were 0.22, 0.31, and 0.37, respectively). Moreover, driving in an urban environment led to more driving errors compared to a rural environment, including sober drivers. Among the driver attributes, gender and awareness about drink and drive laws were the only factors influencing driving error.Conclusion: This study highlights a novel approach to investigate driving error by modeling it as a latent variable instead of modeling individual performance measures. The successful execution of SEM in alcohol impairment research may serve as a significant step in the human factors field moving from piecemeal analysis to a combined analysis where interrelationships among numerous risk factors and driving error can be established. The study outcomes may serve as a reference while developing strategies to enhance road traffic safety where special emphasis can be given to the critical risk factors influencing driving error identified in the study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankit Kumar Yadav
- Transportation Systems Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Bombay Powai, Mumbai, India
| | - Nagendra R Velaga
- Transportation Systems Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Bombay Powai, Mumbai, India
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15
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Zhang Y, Qiao Y, Fricker JD. Investigating pedestrian waiting time at semi-controlled crossing locations: Application of multi-state models for recurrent events analysis. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2020; 137:105437. [PMID: 32036105 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2020.105437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
"Semi-controlled" crosswalks are unsignalized, but clearly marked with "yield to pedestrian within crosswalk" signs. Ideally, pedestrians can cross the street immediately after they arrive at the curb. However, real world observations show that pedestrians and vehicles are often involved in non-verbal "negotiations" to decide who should proceed first. This kind of "negotiation" often causes delays for both parties and may lead to unsafe situations. The study in this paper was based on video recordings of the waiting behaviors of 2059 pedestrians interacting with 1003 motorists at selected semi-controlled crosswalks. One such location experienced a conversion from one-way operation to two-way operation, which provided a rare opportunity for a before-and-after study at that location. Multi-state Markov models were introduced as a novel approach to correlate the dynamic process between recurrent events. Time-varying covariates related to pedestrian characteristics, traffic condition, and vehicle dynamics (distance and speed) turned out to be significant. The analytical method developed in this study provides a tool to dynamically model pedestrian waiting decisions with uncertainties. Model results reveal that, after the conversion from one-way to two-way operation, the probability of a pedestrian accepting a lag decreases from 69.7% to just below 60% on the same street. In addition, pedestrians are more hesitant to cross a two-way street than a one-way street. Countermeasures that increase motorist yielding rate or reduce pedestrian confusion will enhance safety such crossing locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunchang Zhang
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Dr., W. Lafayette IN, 47907, United States.
| | - Yu Qiao
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Dr., W. Lafayette IN, 47907, United States.
| | - Jon D Fricker
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Dr., W. Lafayette IN, 47907, United States.
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16
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Scofield RM, Scofield S, Briggs E. Conspicuity Equipment and Its Contribution to the Welfare of Horse and Rider Combinations Using the Road System in the United Kingdom. J Equine Vet Sci 2019; 82:102770. [PMID: 31732115 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2019.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Limited research exists regarding proximity of vehicles to "vulnerable road users" and effects of "conspicuity equipment". Previous studies stated over 60% of horse/rider combinations experience near-miss traffic collisions in any one year, whereas use of fluorescent/reflective (FR) equipment did not decrease occurrences. Similarly, research into vehicle proximity to bicycles reported no significance in cyclists wearing FR. This study undertook a similar field experiment using a horse/rider combination wearing different conspicuity equipment to test proximity distance. Two horses with similar height, age, base coat color, and temperament were ridden using four conspicuity measures 60 times each (n = 240) along a straight 0.8 km lane. Measures were chosen by random crossover with two selected for each separate trip. These were an FR "tabard", a novel black/white pattern (BW), flashing lights on a helmet (L), and control of mid-blue (C). A novel proximity meter was used on the saddle pommel and distance/approach either front or rear were logged into a voice recorder. Analysis reported a significant difference between all measures and proximities observed (P = .000). Mann-Whitney tests concluded significant differences in proximity in C versus L and BW (P = .000; P = .000), respectively. FR versus C showed no significant difference in proximity (P = .005). L versus BW reported no significant difference in proximity (W = 3640.0, P = .958). Results may suggest wearing conspicuity equipment of L or BW outperforms both C and FR. Further study is recommended to test these findings, and it is pertinent to still consider suggesting the use of FR equipment due to previous positive findings with other road users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rose M Scofield
- Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Gypsy Lane, Oxford, UK.
| | | | - Emma Briggs
- Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Gypsy Lane, Oxford, UK
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17
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Yan L, Wang Y, Ding C, Liu M, Yan F, Guo K. Correlation Among Behavior, Personality, and Electroencephalography Revealed by a Simulated Driving Experiment. Front Psychol 2019; 10:1524. [PMID: 31338049 PMCID: PMC6626991 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Drivers play the most important role in the human-vehicle-environment system and driving behaviors are significantly influenced by the cognitive state of the driver and his/her personality. In this paper, we aimed to explore the correlation among driving behaviors, personality and electroencephalography (EEG) using a simulated driving experiment. A total of 36 healthy subjects participated in the study. The 64-channel EEG data and the driving data, including the real-time position of the vehicle, the rotation angle of the steering wheel and the speed were acquired simultaneously during driving. The Cattell 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) was utilized to evaluate the personalities of subjects. Through hierarchical clustering of the 16PF personality traits, the subjects were divided into four groups, i.e., the Inapprehension group, Insensitivity group, Apprehension group and the Unreasoning group, named after their representative personality trait. Their driving performance and turning behaviors were compared and EEG preprocessing, source reconstruction and the comparisons among the four groups were performed using Statistical Parameter Mapping (SPM). The turning process of the subjects can be formulated into two steps, rotating the steering wheel toward the turning direction and entering the turn, and then rotating the steering wheel back and leaving the turn. The bilateral frontal gyrus was found to be activated when turning left and right, which might be associated with its function in attention, decision-making and executive control functions in visual-spatial and visual-motor processes. The Unreasoning group had the worst driving performance with highest rates of car collision and the most intensive driving action, which was related to a higher load of visual spatial attention and decision making, when the occipital and superior frontal areas played a very important role. Apprehension (O) and Tension (Q4) had a positive correlation, and Reasoning (B) had a negative correlation with dangerous driving behaviors. Our results demonstrated the close correlation among driving behaviors, personality and EEG and may be taken as a reference for the prediction and precaution of dangerous driving behaviors in people with specific personality traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lirong Yan
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Automotive Components Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yi Wang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Automotive Components Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Changhao Ding
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Automotive Components Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Mutian Liu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Automotive Components Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Fuwu Yan
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Automotive Components Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Konghui Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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18
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Lacherez P, Virupaksha S, Wood JM, Collins MJ. The effects of auditory satellite navigation instructions and visual blur on road hazard perception. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2019; 125:132-137. [PMID: 30743176 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2019.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The distracting effects of mobile telephone use while driving are well known, however the effects of other sources of distraction, such as auditory navigation devices, are less well understood. Whether the effects of auditory distraction might interact with other sensory impairments, such as vision impairment, is of interest given that visual impairment is relatively common within the population, particularly as a result of uncorrected refractive error. In this experiment, 20 current drivers (mean age of 29.4 ± 3.2 years), binocularly viewed video recordings of traffic scenes presented as part of the Hazard Perception Test and responded to potential hazards within the traffic scenes. Half of the presented scenes included auditory navigation instructions as an auditory distractor. Additionally, some of the scenes were viewed through optical lenses to induce different levels of refractive blur (+0.50 DS, +1.00 DS and +2.00 DS). Hazard perception response times increased significantly (p < 0.05) with increasing blur. Participants were significantly slower in reacting to hazards for the +1.00 DS and +2.00 DS blur conditions compared to the control condition (with no blur). There was also a significant increase in response times to hazards in the presence of the auditory navigation instructions. The combined effect of blur and auditory instructions was additive, with the worst performance being in the presence of both blur and auditory instructions. These results suggest that the delivery of auditory navigation guidance for those with visual impairments, such as blur, which are relatively common in the population, should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Lacherez
- School of Optometry and Vision Science and Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Australia.
| | - S Virupaksha
- School of Optometry and Vision Science and Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
| | - J M Wood
- School of Optometry and Vision Science and Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
| | - M J Collins
- School of Optometry and Vision Science and Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
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Wood JM, Isoardi G, Black A, Cowling I. Night-time driving visibility associated with LED streetlight dimming. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2018; 121:295-300. [PMID: 30317014 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2018.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Revised: 07/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
New LED streetlighting designs and dimming are being introduced worldwide, however, while their cost savings are well established, their impact on driving performance has received little attention. This study investigated the effect of streetlight dimming on night-time driving performance. Participants included 14 licensed drivers (mean age 34.2 ± 4.9 years, range 27-40 years) who drove an instrumented vehicle around a closed circuit at night. Six LED streetlights were positioned along a 250 m, straight section and their light output varied between laps (dimming levels of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of maximum output; L25, L50, L75 and L100 respectively; at 100% average road surface luminance of 1.14 cd/m2). Driving tasks involved recognition distances and reaction times to a low contrast, moving target and a pedestrian walking at the roadside. Participants drove at an average driving speed of 55 km/hr in the streetlight zone. Streetlight dimming significantly delayed driver reaction times to the moving target (F3,13.06 = 6.404; p = 0.007); with an average 0.4 s delay in reaction times under L25 compared to L100, (estimated reduction in recognition distances of 6 m). Pedestrian recognition distances were significantly shorter under dimmed streetlight levels (F3,12.75 = 8.27; p = 0.003); average pedestrian recognition distances were 15 m shorter under L25 compared to L100, and 11 m shorter under L50 compared to L100. These data suggest that streetlight dimming impacts on driver visibility but it is unclear how these differences impact on safety; future studies are required to inform decisions on safe dimming levels for road networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne M Wood
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
| | | | - Alex Black
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ian Cowling
- School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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20
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Wolfe B, Dobres J, Rosenholtz R, Reimer B. More than the Useful Field: Considering peripheral vision in driving. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2017; 65:316-325. [PMID: 28802451 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2017.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Revised: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Applied research on driving and basic vision research have held similar views on central, fovea-based vision as the core of visual perception. In applied work, the concept of the Useful Field, as determined by the Useful Field of View (UFOV) test, divides vision between a "useful" region towards the center of the visual field, and the rest of the visual field. While compelling, this dichotomization is at odds with findings in vision science which demonstrate the capabilities of peripheral vision. In this paper, we examine driving research from this new perspective, and argue for the need for an updated understanding of how drivers acquire information about their operating environment using peripheral vision. The concept of the Useful Field and the UFOV test are not discarded; instead we discuss their strengths, limitations, and future directions. We discuss key findings from vision science on peripheral vision, and a theory that provides insights into its capabilities and limitations. This more complete basic science understanding of peripheral vision informs appropriate use of the UFOV and the Useful Field in driving research going forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Wolfe
- AgeLab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States; CSAIL, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States.
| | - Jonathan Dobres
- AgeLab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States.
| | - Ruth Rosenholtz
- CSAIL, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States; Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States.
| | - Bryan Reimer
- AgeLab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States.
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21
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Talamonti W, Tijerina L, Blommer M, Swaminathan R, Curry R, Ellis RD. Mirage events & driver haptic steering alerts in a motion-base driving simulator: A method for selecting an optimal HMI. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2017; 65:90-104. [PMID: 28802464 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2017.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2016] [Revised: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
This paper describes a new method, a 'mirage scenario,' to support formative evaluation of driver alerting or warning displays for manual and automated driving. This method provides driving contexts (e.g., various Times-To-Collision (TTCs) to a lead vehicle) briefly presented and then removed. In the present study, during each mirage event, a haptic steering display was evaluated. This haptic display indicated a steering response may be initiated to drive around an obstacle ahead. A motion-base simulator was used in a 32-participant study to present vehicle motion cues similar to the actual application. Surprise was neither present nor of concern, as it would be for a summative evaluation of a forward collision warning system. Furthermore, no collision avoidance maneuvers were performed, thereby reducing the risk of simulator sickness. This paper illustrates the mirage scenario procedures, the rating methods and definitions used with the mirage scenario, and analysis of the ratings obtained, together with a multi-attribute utility theory (MAUT) approach to evaluate and select among alternative designs for future summative evaluation.
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22
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Chee DYT, Lee HCY, Patomella AH, Falkmer T. Investigating the driving performance of drivers with and without autism spectrum disorders under complex driving conditions. Disabil Rehabil 2017; 41:1-8. [PMID: 28845700 DOI: 10.1080/09638288.2017.1370498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to investigate the driving performance of drivers with autism spectrum disorders under complex driving conditions. METHOD Seventeen drivers with autism spectrum disorders and 18 typically developed drivers participated in a driving simulator trial. Prior to the assessment, participants completed the Driving Behaviour Questionnaire and measurements of cognitive and visual-motor ability. The driving simulation involved driving in an urban area with dense traffic and unpredictable events. RESULTS In comparison with the typically developed group, drivers with autism spectrum disorders reported significantly more lapses in driving, committed more mistakes on the driving simulator, and were slower to react in challenging situations, such as driving through intersections with abrupt changes in traffic lights. However, they were also less likely to tailgate other vehicles, as measured by time-to-collision between vehicles, on the driving simulator. CONCLUSIONS The performances of licensed drivers with autism spectrum disorders appeared to be safer in respect to car-following distance but were poorer in their response to challenging traffic situations. Driver education for individuals with autism spectrum disorders should focus on quick identification of hazards, prompt execution of responses, and effective allocation of attention to reduce lapses in driving. Implications for rehabilitation Drivers with autism spectrum disorders reported significantly more lapses during driving. Drivers with autism spectrum disorders were observed to be poorer in traffic scenarios requiring critical response. Driver education for individuals with autism spectrum disorders should focus on managing anxiety and effective attention allocation while driving. Driving simulators can be used as a safe means for training critical response to challenging traffic scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derserri Yan Ting Chee
- a School of Occupational Therapy and Social Work, Faculty of Health Sciences , Curtin University , Perth , Australia
| | - Hoe Chung Yeung Lee
- a School of Occupational Therapy and Social Work, Faculty of Health Sciences , Curtin University , Perth , Australia
| | - Ann-Helen Patomella
- b Department of Neurobiology, Care Science and Society, Division of Occupational Therapy , Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Torbjörn Falkmer
- c Office of the Pro Vice Chancellor Health Sciences , Curtin University , Perth , Australia.,d Department of Medicine and Health Sciences (IMH), Rehabilitation Medicine Unit, Faculty of Health Sciences , Linkoping University & Pain and Rehabilitation Centre , Linkoping , Sweden
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23
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Rogé J, Ndiaye D, Aillerie I, Aillerie S, Navarro J, Vienne F. Mechanisms underlying cognitive conspicuity in the detection of cyclists by car drivers. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2017; 104:88-95. [PMID: 28494259 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2017.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Revised: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 04/08/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to evaluate the visibility of cyclists for motorists in a simulated car driving task. BACKGROUND In several cases involving collisions between cars and cyclists, car drivers failed to detect the latter in time to avoid collision because of their low conspicuity. METHOD 2 groups of motorists (29.2 years old), including 12 cyclist-motorists and 13 non-cyclist-motorists, performed a vulnerable road user detection task in a car-driving simulator. They had to detect cyclists and pedestrians in an urban setting and evaluate the realism of the cyclists, the traffic, the city, the infrastructure, the car driven and the situations. Cyclists appeared in critical situations derived from previous accounts given by injured cyclists and from cyclists' observations in real-life situations. Cyclist's levels of visibility for car drivers were either high or low in these situations according to the cyclists. RESULTS Realism scores were similar and high in both groups. Cyclist-motorists had fewer collisions with cyclists and detected cyclists at a greater distance in all situations, irrespective of cyclist visibility. Several mechanisms underlying the cognitive conspicuity of cyclists for car drivers were considered. CONCLUSION The attentional selection of a cyclist in the road environment during car driving depends on top-down processing. APPLICATION We consider the practical implications of these results for the safety of vulnerable road users and future directions of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joceline Rogé
- Laboratoire Ergonomie et Sciences Cognitives pour les Transports, Institut Français des Sciences et Technologies des Transports, de l'Aménagement et des Réseaux, 25 avenue François Mitterrand, 69675 Bron, France; Univ Lyon, IFSTTAR, TS2, LESCOT, F-69675, Lyon, France.
| | - Daniel Ndiaye
- Université Paris-Est, COSYS, LEPSIS, IFSTTAR, F-77447 Marne-la-Vallée, France
| | - Isabelle Aillerie
- Université Paris-Est, COSYS, LEPSIS, IFSTTAR, F-77447 Marne-la-Vallée, France
| | - Stéphane Aillerie
- Université Paris-Est, COSYS, LEPSIS, IFSTTAR, F-77447 Marne-la-Vallée, France
| | - Jordan Navarro
- Département de Psychologie Cognitive & Neuropsychologie, Institut de Psychologie, Laboratoire d'Etude des Mécanismes Cognitifs, Université Lyon 2, Bron Cedex, France
| | - Fabrice Vienne
- Université Paris-Est, COSYS, LEPSIS, IFSTTAR, F-77447 Marne-la-Vallée, France
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24
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Sucha M, Dostal D, Risser R. Pedestrian-driver communication and decision strategies at marked crossings. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2017; 102:41-50. [PMID: 28259827 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2017.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2016] [Revised: 02/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this work is to describe pedestrian-driver encounters, communication, and decision strategies at marked but unsignalised crossings in urban areas in the Czech Republic and the ways in which the parties involved experience and handle these encounters. A mixed-methods design was used, consisting of focus groups with pedestrians and drivers regarding their subjective views of the situations, on-site observations, camera recordings, speed measurements, the measurement of car and pedestrian densities, and brief on-site interviews with pedestrians. In close correspondence with the literature, our study revealed that the most relevant predictors of pedestrians' and drivers' behaviour at crossings were the densities of car traffic and pedestrian flows and car speed. The factors which influenced pedestrians' wait/go behaviour were: car speed, the distance of the car from the crossing, traffic density, whether there were cars approaching from both directions, various signs given by the driver (eye contact, waving a hand, flashing their lights), and the presence of other pedestrians. The factors influencing drivers' yield/go behaviour were: speed, traffic density, the number of pedestrians waiting to cross, and pedestrians being distracted. A great proportion of drivers (36%) failed to yield to pedestrians at marked crossings. The probability of conflict situations increased with cars travelling at a higher speed, higher traffic density, and pedestrians being distracted by a different activity while crossing. The findings of this study can add to the existing literature by helping to provide an understanding of the perception of encounter situations by the parties involved and the motives lying behind certain aspects of behaviour associated with these encounters. This seems necessary in order to develop suggestions for improvements. For instance, the infrastructure near pedestrian crossings should be designed in such a way as to take proper account of pedestrians' needs to feel safe and comfortable, as well as ensuring their objective safety. Thus, improvements should include measures aimed at reducing the speed of approaching vehicles (e.g. humps, speed cushions, elevated crossings, early yield bars, and narrow lanes), as this would enhance yielding by motor vehicles. Other measures that specifically rely on the subjective perception of different situations by the parties involved include the education and training of drivers, the aim of which is to promote their understanding and appreciation of pedestrians' needs and motives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matus Sucha
- Department of Psychology, Palacky University in Olomouc, Krizkovskeho 8, Olomouc 771 80, Czech Republic.
| | - Daniel Dostal
- Department of Psychology, Palacky University in Olomouc, Krizkovskeho 8, Olomouc 771 80, Czech Republic
| | - Ralf Risser
- Department of Psychology, Palacky University in Olomouc, Krizkovskeho 8, Olomouc 771 80, Czech Republic; Factum OHG, Danhausergasse 6/4, A-1040 Vienna, Austria,.
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25
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Yan X, Zhang X, Zhang Y, Li X, Yang Z. Changes in Drivers' Visual Performance during the Collision Avoidance Process as a Function of Different Field of Views at Intersections. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0164101. [PMID: 27716824 PMCID: PMC5055297 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0164101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 08/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The intersection field of view (IFOV) indicates an extent that the visual information can be observed by drivers. It has been found that further enhancing IFOV can significantly improve emergent collision avoidance performance at intersections, such as faster brake reaction time, smaller deceleration rate, and lower traffic crash involvement risk. However, it is not known how IFOV affects drivers’ eye movements, visual attention and the relationship between visual searching and traffic safety. In this study, a driving simulation experiment was conducted to uncover the changes in drivers’ visual performance during the collision avoidance process as a function of different field of views at an intersection by using an eye tracking system. The experimental results showed that drivers’ ability in identifying the potential hazard in terms of visual searching was significantly affected by different IFOV conditions. As the IFOVs increased, drivers had longer gaze duration (GD) and more number of gazes (NG) in the intersection surrounding areas and paid more visual attention to capture critical visual information on the emerging conflict vehicle, thus leading to a better collision avoidance performance and a lower crash risk. It was also found that female drivers had a better visual performance and a lower crash rate than male drivers. From the perspective of drivers’ visual performance, the results strengthened the evidence that further increasing intersection sight distance standards should be encouraged for enhancing traffic safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuedong Yan
- MOE Key Laboratory for Urban Transportation Complex System Theory and Technology, School of Traffic and Transportation, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, PR China
- * E-mail:
| | - Xinran Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory for Urban Transportation Complex System Theory and Technology, School of Traffic and Transportation, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, PR China
| | - Yuting Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory for Urban Transportation Complex System Theory and Technology, School of Traffic and Transportation, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, PR China
| | - Xiaomeng Li
- MOE Key Laboratory for Urban Transportation Complex System Theory and Technology, School of Traffic and Transportation, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, PR China
| | - Zhuo Yang
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Infrastructure Engineering, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, United States of America
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26
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Tyrrell RA, Wood JM, Owens DA, Whetsel Borzendowski S, Stafford Sewall A. The conspicuity of pedestrians at night: a review. Clin Exp Optom 2016; 99:425-34. [PMID: 27523959 DOI: 10.1111/cxo.12447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Revised: 05/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Drivers' visual limitations are a leading contributor to night-time traffic crashes involving pedestrians. This paper reviews the basic changes in vision that occur at night for young and old visually healthy drivers, as well as those with common ocular pathology. To maximise their safety at night, pedestrians should be conspicuous. That is, beyond being simply visible (detectable as an ambiguous object), they should attract the attention of drivers and be readily perceivable as pedestrians. Research has established that the conspicuity of pedestrians can be optimised by attaching retroreflective markings to the pedestrian's extremities. Doing so highlights the pedestrian's 'biological motion,' which facilitates the accurate perception of a person; however, retroreflective markings on the torso (for example, vests) are less effective. Importantly, behavioural evidence indicates that most road users - drivers and pedestrians alike - are not aware of the limitations of night vision. For example, drivers typically 'overdrive' the useful range of their headlight beams and under-use their high beam headlight setting. Further, pedestrians overestimate their own conspicuity at night and fail to appreciate the extent to which their own conspicuity depends on their clothing. The widespread misunderstanding of the challenges associated with night driving reflects a lack of awareness of the fundamental limitations of night vision. Educational interventions are needed to ameliorate these dangerous misunderstandings and to improve the safety of all road users at night.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Tyrrell
- Department of Psychology, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA.
| | - Joanne M Wood
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - D Alfred Owens
- Whitely Psychology Laboratories, Franklin & Marshall College, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, USA
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Sparrow AR, Mollicone DJ, Kan K, Bartels R, Satterfield BC, Riedy SM, Unice A, Van Dongen HPA. Naturalistic field study of the restart break in US commercial motor vehicle drivers: Truck driving, sleep, and fatigue. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2016; 93:55-64. [PMID: 27173360 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2016.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Revised: 04/13/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Commercial motor vehicle (CMV) drivers in the US may start a new duty cycle after taking a 34-h restart break. A restart break provides an opportunity for sleep recuperation to help prevent the build-up of fatigue across duty cycles. However, the effectiveness of a restart break may depend on its timing, and on how many nighttime opportunities for sleep it contains. For daytime drivers, a 34-h restart break automatically includes two nighttime periods. For nighttime drivers, who are arguably at increased risk of fatigue, a 34-h restart break contains only one nighttime period. To what extent this is relevant for fatigue depends in part on whether nighttime drivers revert back to a nighttime-oriented sleep schedule during the restart break. We conducted a naturalistic field study with 106 CMV drivers working their normal schedules and performing their normal duties. These drivers were studied during two duty cycles and during the intervening restart break. They provided a total of 1260days of data and drove a total of 414,937 miles during the study. Their duty logs were used to identify the periods when they were on duty and when they were driving and to determine their duty cycles and restart breaks. Sleep/wake patterns were measured continuously by means of wrist actigraphy. Fatigue was assessed three times per day by means of a brief psychomotor vigilance test (PVT-B) and a subjective sleepiness scale. Data from a truck-based lane tracking and data acquisition system were used to compute lane deviation (variability in lateral lane position). Statistical analyses focused on 24-h patterns of duty, driving, sleep, PVT-B performance, subjective sleepiness, and lane deviation. Duty cycles preceded by a restart break containing only one nighttime period (defined as 01:00-05:00) were compared with duty cycles preceded by a restart break containing more than one nighttime period. During duty cycles preceded by a restart break with only one nighttime period, drivers showed more nighttime-oriented duty and driving patterns and more daytime-oriented sleep patterns than during duty cycles preceded by a restart break with more than one nighttime period. During duty cycles preceded by a restart break with only one nighttime period, drivers also experienced more lapses of attention on the PVT-B and increased lane deviation at night, and they reported greater subjective sleepiness. Importantly, drivers exhibited a predominantly nighttime-oriented sleep schedule during the restart break, regardless of whether the restart break contained only one or more than one nighttime period. Consistent with findings in laboratory-based studies of the restart break, the results of this naturalistic field study indicate that having at least two nighttime periods in the restart break provides greater opportunity for sleep recuperation and helps to mitigate fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy R Sparrow
- Sleep and Performance Research Center and Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Washington State University, P.O. Box 1495, Spokane, WA 99224, USA.
| | - Daniel J Mollicone
- Pulsar Informatics, Inc., 3401 Market Street, Suite 318, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Kevin Kan
- Pulsar Informatics, Inc., 3401 Market Street, Suite 318, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Rachel Bartels
- Pulsar Informatics, Inc., 3401 Market Street, Suite 318, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Brieann C Satterfield
- Sleep and Performance Research Center and Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Washington State University, P.O. Box 1495, Spokane, WA 99224, USA.
| | - Samantha M Riedy
- Sleep and Performance Research Center and Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Washington State University, P.O. Box 1495, Spokane, WA 99224, USA.
| | - Aaron Unice
- Pulsar Informatics, Inc., 3401 Market Street, Suite 318, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Hans P A Van Dongen
- Sleep and Performance Research Center and Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Washington State University, P.O. Box 1495, Spokane, WA 99224, USA.
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Belyusar D, Reimer B, Mehler B, Coughlin JF. A field study on the effects of digital billboards on glance behavior during highway driving. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2016; 88:88-96. [PMID: 26745271 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2015.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Revised: 12/13/2015] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Developments in lighting technologies have allowed more dynamic digital billboards in locations visible from the roadway. Decades of laboratory research have shown that rapidly changing or moving stimuli presented in peripheral vision tends to 'capture' covert attention. We report naturalistic glance and driving behavior of a large sample of drivers who were exposed to two digital billboards on a segment of highway largely free from extraneous signage. Results show a significant shift in the number and length of glances toward the billboards and an increased percentage of time glancing off road in their presence. Findings were particularly evident at the time the billboards transitioned between advertisements. Since rapidly changing stimuli are difficult to ignore, the planned increase in episodically changing digital displays near the roadway may be argued to be a potential safety concern. The impact of digital billboards on driver safety and the need for continued research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Belyusar
- New England University Transportation Center & MIT AgeLab, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, E40-279, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Bryan Reimer
- New England University Transportation Center & MIT AgeLab, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, E40-279, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States.
| | - Bruce Mehler
- New England University Transportation Center & MIT AgeLab, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, E40-279, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Joseph F Coughlin
- New England University Transportation Center & MIT AgeLab, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, E40-279, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
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Matos R, Varregoso I, Comprido A, Coelho L, Morouço P, Amaro N, Barroso M. Seniors Road Safety Enhancement through Perceptual-Motor Competences Training Program Impact upon the Performance on the Useful Field of Vision (UFOV). AGEING INTERNATIONAL 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s12126-012-9179-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Zhao N, Chen W, Xuan Y, Mehler B, Reimer B, Fu X. Drivers' and non-drivers' performance in a change detection task with static driving scenes: is there a benefit of experience? ERGONOMICS 2014; 57:998-1007. [PMID: 24787715 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2014.909952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The 'looked-but-failed-to-see' phenomenon is crucial to driving safety. Previous research utilising change detection tasks related to driving has reported inconsistent effects of driver experience on the ability to detect changes in static driving scenes. Reviewing these conflicting results, we suggest that drivers' increased ability to detect changes will only appear when the task requires a pattern of visual attention distribution typical of actual driving. By adding a distant fixation point on the road image, we developed a modified change blindness paradigm and measured detection performance of drivers and non-drivers. Drivers performed better than non-drivers only in scenes with a fixation point. Furthermore, experience effect interacted with the location of the change and the relevance of the change to driving. These results suggest that learning associated with driving experience reflects increased skill in the efficient distribution of visual attention across both the central focus area and peripheral objects. PRACTITIONER SUMMARY This article provides an explanation for the previously conflicting reports of driving experience effects in change detection tasks. We observed a measurable benefit of experience in static driving scenes, using a modified change blindness paradigm. These results have translational opportunities for picture-based training and testing tools to improve driver skill.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Zhao
- a State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing , China
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Whetsel Borzendowski SA, Rosenberg RL, Sewall AS, Tyrrell RA. Pedestrians' estimates of their own nighttime conspicuity are unaffected by severe reductions in headlight illumination. JOURNAL OF SAFETY RESEARCH 2013; 47:25-30. [PMID: 24237867 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsr.2013.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2013] [Revised: 08/14/2013] [Accepted: 08/20/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION At night pedestrians tend to overestimate their conspicuity to oncoming drivers, but little is known about factors affecting pedestrians' conspicuity estimates. This study examines how headlamp intensity and pedestrians' clothing influence judgments of their own conspicuity. METHOD Forty-eight undergraduate students estimated their own conspicuity on an unilluminated closed road by walking in front of a stationary vehicle to the point at which they judged that they were just recognizable to the driver. Unknown to the participants, high beam intensity was manipulated between subjects by placing neutral density filters on the headlamps. RESULTS Estimated conspicuity distances did not significantly vary with changes in headlamp intensity even when only 3% of the illumination from the headlamps was present. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS These findings underscore the need to educate pedestrians about the visual challenges that drivers face at night and the need to minimize pedestrians' exposure to traffic flow at night.
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McCarley JS, Steelman KS, Horrey WJ. The View from the Driver's Seat: What Good Is Salience? APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.2955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Young KL, Salmon PM, Cornelissen M. Distraction-induced driving error: an on-road examination of the errors made by distracted and undistracted drivers. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2013; 58:218-225. [PMID: 22727884 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2012.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2011] [Revised: 05/28/2012] [Accepted: 06/03/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
This study explored the nature of errors made by drivers when distracted versus not distracted. Participants drove an instrumented vehicle around an urban test route both while distracted (performing a visual detection task) and while not distracted. Two in-vehicle observers recorded the driving errors made, and a range of other data were collected, including driver verbal protocols, forward, cockpit and driver video, and vehicle data (speed, braking, steering wheel angle, etc.). Classification of the errors revealed that drivers were significantly more likely to make errors when distracted; although driving errors were prevalent even when not distracted. Interestingly, the nature of the errors made when distracted did not differ substantially from those made when not distracted, suggesting that, rather than making different types of errors, distracted drivers simply make a greater number of the same error types they make when not distracted. Avenues for broadening our understanding of the relationship between distraction and driving errors are discussed along with the advantages of using a multi-method framework for studying driver behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristie L Young
- Monash University Accident Research Centre, Monash Injury Research Institute, Building 70 Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
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Werneke J, Vollrath M. How to present collision warnings at intersections?--a comparison of different approaches. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2013; 52:91-99. [PMID: 23305968 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2012.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2011] [Revised: 05/25/2012] [Accepted: 12/02/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Analyses of intersection accidents have shown that in most cases drivers overlook or see other road users with the right of way too late that they cannot react in time. Appropriate visual warning signals which support drivers in their attention allocation and driving behavior could be useful to improve drivers' reaction. In a driving simulator study, two warning strategies varying in their timing: (1) top-down warning while approaching a critical intersection and (2) bottom-up warning directly before the critical incident were investigated in a T-intersection situation. For the bottom-up warning, two warning signal designs were compared. 48 subjects (M=27.3 years, SD=7.4 years) participated in the study. Driving data as well as subjective evaluation of the three warning signals (one early and two late warning signals) were analyzed. The early warning signal which was given while approaching the intersection showed a positive effect. Here, most collisions could be avoided due to drivers' adaptation of their driving behavior toward safer driving. They waited longer at the intersection before turning and finally turned with a lower velocity. In addition, drivers evaluated the early warning signal as very "useful". With regard to the late warnings a much smaller effect was found. From these results, requirements can be derived for the design of effective warning strategies when driving at critical intersections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Werneke
- Department of Traffic and Engineering Psychology, TU Braunschweig, Gaußstraße 23, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany.
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Werneke J, Vollrath M. What does the driver look at? The influence of intersection characteristics on attention allocation and driving behavior. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2012; 45:610-619. [PMID: 22269548 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2011.09.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2010] [Revised: 08/17/2011] [Accepted: 09/12/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
One of the main contributing factors with intersection accidents is lack of information due to attention allocation. In many cases, drivers fail to yield right of way to other traffic participants. One reason is that drivers have inappropriate expectations about a traffic situation. They allocate their attention primarily to certain areas of the intersection but neglect others. In a driving simulator study, the influence of intersection complexity on drivers' expectations and their driving behavior was examined. In two T-intersections, the complexity was varied by the traffic density (low and high) using either one or two important objects: vehicles (left) with or without pedestrians (right). Additionally, the reaction to two critical incidents in close proximity of the intersections was examined. Gaze behavior, vehicle reactions, and subjective data were recorded. 40 subjects (26 male, 14 female, M=31.0 years, SD=11.9 years) participated in the study. Interestingly, the least complex intersections showed the most accidents which was interpreted as the result of inadequate attention allocation. It was shown that both the drivers' attention allocation and vehicle velocity when turning off were responsible for this effect. The results contribute to a better understanding of the role of drivers' expectation and attention allocation in the causation of intersection accidents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Werneke
- Department of Traffic and Engineering Psychology, TU Braunschweig, Gaußstraße 23, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany.
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Rogé J, Douissembekov E, Vienne F. Low conspicuity of motorcycles for car drivers: dominant role of bottom-up control of visual attention or deficit of top-down control? HUMAN FACTORS 2012; 54:14-25. [PMID: 22409099 DOI: 10.1177/0018720811427033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the low visibility of motorcycles is the result of their low cognitive conspicuity and/or their low sensory conspicuity for car drivers. BACKGROUND In several cases of collision between a car and a motorcycle, the car driver failed to detect the motorcyclist in time to avoid the collision. METHOD To test the low cognitive conspicuity hypothesis, 42 car drivers (32.02 years old) including 21 motorcyclist motorists and 21 non-motorcyclist motorists carried out a motorcycle detection task in a car-driving simulator.To test the low sensory conspicuity hypothesis, the authors studied the effect of the color contrast between motorcycles and the road surface on the ability of car drivers to detect motorcycles when they appear from different parts of the road. RESULTS A high level of color contrast enhanced the visibility of motorcycles when they appeared in front of the participants. Moreover, when motorcyclists appeared from behind the participants,the motorcyclist motorists detected oncoming motorcycles at a greater distance than did the non-motorcyclist motorists. Motorcyclist motorists carry out more saccades and rapidly capture information (on their rearview mirrors and on the road in front of them). CONCLUSION The results related to the sensory conspicuity and cognitive conspicuity of motorcycles for car drivers are discussed from the viewpoint of visual attention theories. APPLICATION The practical implications of these results and future lines of research related to training methods for car drivers are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joceline Rogé
- Institut Français des Sciences et Technologies des Transports, de l'Aménagement et des Réseaux, Laboratoire Ergonomie et Sciences Cognitives pour les Transports, 25 avenue François Mitterrand, 69675 Bron, France.
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Uchida N, de Waard D, Brookhuis KA. Countermeasures to prevent detection failure of a vehicle approaching on collision course. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2011; 42:540-547. [PMID: 20950792 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2010.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2009] [Revised: 09/03/2010] [Accepted: 09/09/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study investigated causal factor of perceptual failure and possible countermeasure of crossing path crashes at clear-sighted unsignalised intersections. BACKGROUND Crossing path crashes involving two vehicles at intersections are a common and serious problem, and perceptual failure has been identified as a predominant causal factor. Previous studies have showed that late detection of a crossing vehicle frequently occurs even when there are no visual obstructions, at such as rural intersections. METHOD With using a fixed-based driving simulator, three experiments were performed to investigate a driver's ability to detect a periphery presented cross traffic while approaching an intersection. In Experiment 1, drivers' ability to detect crossing vehicles in their peripheral field of view was studied, both in conditions of vehicles following a collision and a non-collision trajectory. In Experiment 2, we examined whether abrupt appearance of a vehicle on collision course would improve detection performance. In Experiment 3, we tested potential of collision warning, if it affects voluntary visual scanning, improving the detection performance regarding hazards cross traffic. RESULTS The results of Experiment 1 showed that vehicles on collision course vehicles were detected late. This suggested that the late detection could be related to the lack of motion visible in the peripheral view. In Experiment 2, it was found that abrupt appearance effect ("pop-up" from road side occluding furniture) improves detection performance of a crossing vehicle. The results of Experiment 3 demonstrated that cross traffic collision warnings were beneficial for preventing late detection responses by means of encouraging voluntary visual scanning. CONCLUSION Less attention attractive visual properties of hazardous cross traffic attributed to mutual approaching course can cause recognition failure. Drivers' gaze shift to potential conflicting direction, either reflective or voluntary manner, is crucially important for preventing crossing path crashes at such as rural intersections.
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Wood JM, Tyrrell RA, Marszalek R, Lacherez P, Chaparro A, Britt TW. Using biological motion to enhance the conspicuity of roadway workers. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2011; 43:1036-1041. [PMID: 21376898 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2010.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2010] [Revised: 12/03/2010] [Accepted: 12/06/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
This study examined whether the conspicuity of road workers at night can be enhanced by distributing retroreflective strips across the body to present a pattern of biological motion (biomotion). Twenty visually normal drivers (mean age = 40.3 years) participated in an experiment conducted at two open-road work sites (one suburban and one freeway) at night-time. At each site, four road workers walked in place wearing a standard road worker night vest either (a) alone, (b) with additional retroreflective strips on thighs, (c) with additional retroreflective strips on ankles and knees, or (d) with additional retroreflective strips on eight moveable joints (full biomotion). Participants, seated in stationary vehicles at three different distances (80 m, 160 m, 240 m), rated the relative conspicuity of the four road workers. Road worker conspicuity was maximized by the full biomotion configuration at all distances and at both sites. The addition of ankle and knee markings also provided significant benefits relative to the standard vest alone. The effects of clothing configuration were more evident at the freeway site and at shorter distances. Overall, the full biomotion configuration was ranked to be most conspicuous and the vest least conspicuous. These data provide the first evidence that biomotion effectively enhances conspicuity of road workers at open-road work sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne M Wood
- School of Optometry and Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
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Davoodi SR, Hamid H, Arintono S, Muniandy R, Faezi SF. Motorcyclist rear brake simple perception-response times in rear-end collision situations. TRAFFIC INJURY PREVENTION 2011; 12:174-179. [PMID: 21469025 DOI: 10.1080/15389588.2010.533314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to determine the baseline motorcycle riders' perception-response times (PRTs) in an expected object braking task and to determine the significant difference between PRTs of older and younger riders. METHODS Fifty-nine participants sat on their motorcycles in exactly the same way as they would when riding and then they awaited activation of the taillights of the passenger car (parked) in front of them. PRTs of the motorcyclists were transcribed from the camcorder when the riders hit the brakes as quickly as possible following the activation of the car's brake lights. RESULTS Results of PRT were calculated by taking the average of both male and female older and younger riders. The study demonstrates that the mean and standard deviation of the motorcycle baseline PRTs are 0.44 and 0.11 s, respectively. Riders' age and gender were not found to be significant variables for PRT. CONCLUSION The mean of baseline perception-reaction time of motorcycle riders is smaller than that of passenger car drivers. If traffic facilities are designed based on passenger car drivers' simple perception-reaction times where drivers are generally more alert (for example, in traffic signal design), they can provide the required PRT for motorcyclists. This suggests that the utilization of more powerful brake lights on motorcycles could be highly effective for preventing rear-end motorcycle collisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Rasoul Davoodi
- Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
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Signal evaluation environment: a new method for the design of peripheral in-vehicle warning signals. Behav Res Methods 2011; 43:537-47. [PMID: 21298566 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-010-0054-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
An evaluation method called the Signal Evaluation Environment (SEE) was developed for use in the early stages of the design process of peripheral warning signals while driving. Accident analyses have shown that with complex driving situations such as intersections, the visual scan strategies of the driver contribute to overlooking other road users who have the right of way. Salient peripheral warning signals could disrupt these strategies and direct drivers' attention towards these road users. To select effective warning signals, the SEE was developed as a laboratory task requiring visual-cognitive processes similar to those used at intersections. For validation of the SEE, four experiments were conducted using different stimulus characteristics (size, colour contrast, shape, flashing) that influence peripheral vision. The results confirm that the SEE is able to differentiate between the selected stimulus characteristics. The SEE is a useful initial tool for designing peripheral signals, allowing quick and efficient preselection of beneficial signals.
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White CB, Caird JK. The blind date: the effects of change blindness, passenger conversation and gender on looked-but-failed-to-see (LBFTS) errors. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2010; 42:1822-30. [PMID: 20728633 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2010.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2010] [Revised: 03/26/2010] [Accepted: 05/03/2010] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
This study examined situations where drivers looked-but-failed-to-see (LBFTS) hazards, and whether passenger conversation and gender affected hazard detection rates. To reliably produce LBFTS errors, 40 young drivers (M=20.3) encountered motorcycles and pedestrians while making left turns in the University of Calgary Driving Simulator (UCDS). Prior to turn initiation the UCDS screens flickered using an extension of change blindness methods. In addition, drivers either drove alone or conversed with an attractive confederate passenger. Measures of LBFTS errors, hazard detection and social factors were analyzed. Higher rates of LBFTS errors and hazard detection occurred while conversing than while driving alone. A discriminant function analysis (DFA) using conversation and gender as predictors accurately classified LBFTS errors. Higher passenger attraction and higher extroversion were related to critical events being missed. The basis of LBFTS errors in divided and selective attention and classification implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cale B White
- Cognitive Ergonomics Research Laboratory, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
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Isler RB, Starkey NJ. Evaluation of a sudden brake warning system: effect on the response time of the following driver. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2010; 41:569-576. [PMID: 20034608 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2009.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2009] [Revised: 12/01/2009] [Accepted: 12/02/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
This study used a video-based braking simulation dual task to carry out a preliminary evaluation of the effect of a sudden brake warning system (SBWS) in a leading passenger vehicle on the response time of the following driver. The primary task required the participants (N=25, 16 females, full NZ license holders) to respond to sudden braking manoeuvres of a lead vehicle during day and night driving, wet and dry conditions and in rural and urban traffic, while concurrently performing a secondary tracking task using a computer mouse. The SBWS in the lead vehicle consisted of g-force controlled activation of the rear hazard lights (the rear indicators flashed), in addition to the standard brake lights. Overall, the results revealed that responses to the braking manoeuvres of the leading vehicles when the hazard lights were activated by the warning system were 0.34 s (19%) faster compared to the standard brake lights. The SBWS was particularly effective when the simulated braking scenario of the leading vehicle did not require an immediate and abrupt braking response. Given this, the SBWS may also be beneficial for allowing smoother deceleration, thus reducing fuel consumption. These preliminary findings justify a larger, more ecologically valid laboratory evaluation which may lead to a naturalistic study in order to test this new technology in 'real world' braking situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Isler
- Traffic and Road Safety Research Group, Psychology Department, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand.
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Abstract
Aymery Constant and Emmanuel Lagarde discuss policies to protect pedestrians, and pedal and motor cyclists, from injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aymery Constant
- Equipe Avenir prévention et prise en charge des traumatismes, Centre de recherche INSERM U897 “Epidémiologie et Biostatistiques,” Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, France
| | - Emmanuel Lagarde
- Equipe Avenir prévention et prise en charge des traumatismes, Centre de recherche INSERM U897 “Epidémiologie et Biostatistiques,” Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, France
- * E-mail:
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Miller PD, Kendrick D, Coupland C, Coffey F. The use of conspicuity aids by cyclists and risk of crashes involving other road users: a protocol for a population based case-control study. BMC Public Health 2010; 10:39. [PMID: 20105286 PMCID: PMC2835683 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-10-39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2009] [Accepted: 01/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Regular cycling has been shown to improve health and has a role in tackling the threats posed by obesity and inactivity. Cycle collisions, particularly those involving motorised vehicles, can lead to significant mortality and morbidity and are currently a barrier to wider uptake of cycling. There is evidence that the conspicuity of cyclists is a factor in many injury collisions. Low-cost, easy to use retro-reflective and fluorescent clothing and accessories ('conspicuity aids') are available. Their effectiveness in reducing cycling collisions is unknown. The study is designed to investigate the relationship between the use of conspicuity aids and risk of collision or evasion crashes for utility and commuter cyclists in the UK. Methods/Design A matched case-control study is proposed. Cases are adult commuter and utility cyclists involved in a crash resulting from a collision or attempted evasion of a collision with another road user recruited at a UK emergency department. Controls are commuter and utility cyclists matched by journey purpose, time and day of travel and geographical area recruited at public and private cycle parking sites. Data on the use of conspicuity aids, crash circumstances, demographics, cycling experience, safety equipment use, journey characteristics and route will be collected using self-completed questionnaires and maps. Conditional logistic regression will be used to calculate adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals of the risk of a crash when using any item of fluorescent or reflective clothing or equipment. Discussion This study will provide information on the effectiveness of conspicuity aids in reducing the risk of injury to cyclists resulting from crashes involving other road users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip D Miller
- Division of Primary Care, School of Community Health Sciences, University of Nottingham, The Tower, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
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Lin CT, Chiu TT, Huang TY, Chao CF, Liang WC, Hsu SH, Ko LW. Assessing effectiveness of various auditory warning signals in maintaining drivers' attention in virtual reality-based driving environments. Percept Mot Skills 2009; 108:825-35. [PMID: 19725318 DOI: 10.2466/pms.108.3.825-835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Drivers' fatigue contributes to traffic accidents, so drivers must maintain adequate alertness. The effectiveness of audio alarms in maintaining driving performance and characteristics of alarms was studied in a virtural reality-based driving environment. Response time to the car's drifting was measured under seven conditions: with no warnings and with continuous warning tones (500 Hz, 1750 Hz, and 3000 Hz), and with tone bursts at 500 Hz, 1750 Hz, and 3000 Hz. Analyses showed the audio warning signals significantly improved driving. Further, the tones' spectral characteristics significantly influenced the effectiveness of the warning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chin-Teng Lin
- Brain Research Center, Department of Electrical and Control Engineering, National Chiao-Tung University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
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Babizhayev MA, Minasyan H, Richer SP. Cataract halos: a driving hazard in aging populations. Implication of the Halometer DG test for assessment of intraocular light scatter. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2009; 40:545-553. [PMID: 18814857 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2007.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2006] [Revised: 09/12/2007] [Accepted: 09/17/2007] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE AND BACKGROUND Cataract, regardless of etiology, results in light scatter and subjective glare. Senile cataract is emerging as a crucial factor in driving safely, particularly in night driving and adverse weather conditions. The authors examined this visual impairment using a new Halometer DG test in the eyes of older adult drivers with and without cataract. METHOD Examined subjects consisted of n=65 older adults with cataract in one or both eyes and n=72 adult drivers who did not have a cataract in either eye. Subjects were examined for distance high contrast visual acuity (VA) and red/green disability glare (DG) with a new halo generating instrument. Subjects also completed a subjective Driving Habits Questionnaire (DHQ), designed to obtain information about driving during the past year. RESULTS DG increased with age of the driver. VA and Halometer DG testing of better and worse eyes prognosticated impairments which significantly affect driving performance. Cataract subjects demonstrated increased Halometer DG scores and were two to four times more likely to report difficulty with driving at night and with challenging driving situations than were cataract-free drivers. CONCLUSION DG is a specific cataract-induced functional age-related risk factor of driving difficulty, easily measured by a technician with a new Halometer DG device. APPLICATION Optometrists and ophthalmologists should incorporate Halometer DG testing in their pre-examination vision testing rooms for patients over age 55, and also perform this test on others who complain about glare. Traffic safety engineers should incorporate automotive optical-microprocessor-aided tests for DG into cars, to alert drivers of mild functional impairments and progressive degrees of DG sensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Babizhayev
- Innovative Vision Products Inc., 3511 Silverside Road, Suite 105, County of New Castle, DE 19810, USA.
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Tyrrell RA, Wood JM, Chaparro A, Carberry TP, Chu BS, Marszalek RP. Seeing pedestrians at night: visual clutter does not mask biological motion. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2009; 41:506-512. [PMID: 19393800 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2009.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2008] [Revised: 01/27/2009] [Accepted: 02/02/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Although placing reflective markers on pedestrians' major joints can make pedestrians more conspicuous to drivers at night, it has been suggested that this "biological motion" effect may be reduced when visual clutter is present. We tested whether extraneous points of light affected the ability of 12 younger and 12 older drivers to see pedestrians as they drove on a closed road at night. Pedestrians wore black clothing alone or with retroreflective markings in four different configurations. One pedestrian walked in place and was surrounded by clutter on half of the trials. Another was always surrounded by visual clutter but either walked in place or stood still. Clothing configuration, pedestrian motion, and driver age influenced conspicuity but clutter did not. The results confirm that even in the presence of visual clutter pedestrians wearing biological motion configurations are recognized more often and at greater distances than when they wear a reflective vest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Tyrrell
- Department of Psychology, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-1355, USA.
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Spence C, Ho C. Multisensory warning signals for event perception and safe driving. THEORETICAL ISSUES IN ERGONOMICS SCIENCE 2008. [DOI: 10.1080/14639220701816765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Koustanaï A, Boloix E, Van Elslande P, Bastien C. Statistical analysis of "looked-but-failed-to-see" accidents: highlighting the involvement of two distinct mechanisms. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2008; 40:461-469. [PMID: 18329395 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2007.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2006] [Revised: 08/01/2007] [Accepted: 08/01/2007] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Circumstances where "looked-but-failed-to-see" accidents arise are a particular subject of study. In order to better understand why normal drivers could miss a relevant event signaling danger, more than 500 accidents were analyzed in-depth with regard to driver-environment-goal interactions. Results show four typical situations that imply two distinct mechanisms. When a failure arose at the perceptual stage, drivers actually never saw the danger while they were going straight at a junction or turning left to park their car. When failure arose at the processing stage, there was evidence that drivers saw the danger even when their recall of it was lacking. In fact, drivers saw the danger too late to avoid collision when they were overtaking another road user or trying to find his/her way. These are called "looked-but-failed-to-see-accidents". Accident patterns are discussed according to driver's goal involvement and local setting to suggest directions for further investigation with a special emphasis on change blindness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Koustanaï
- Department of Psychology, University of Provence I, 13621 Aix-en-Provence Cedex 1, France.
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Reimer B, D'Ambrosio LA, Coughlin JF, Fried R, Biederman J. Task-induced fatigue and collisions in adult drivers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. TRAFFIC INJURY PREVENTION 2007; 8:290-9. [PMID: 17710720 DOI: 10.1080/15389580701257842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study compares collision involvement between adult drivers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and control participants in a simulation experiment designed to enhance the effects of fatigue. Because the effects of ADHD include difficulties in maintaining attention, drivers with ADHD were hypothesized to be more susceptible to the effects of fatigue while driving. METHODS Data are drawn from a validated driving simulation study, portions of which were focused on enhancing the effects of fatigue. The simulator data are supplemented with written questionnaire data. Drivers with ADHD were compared with controls. RESULTS The self-report data indicated that drivers with ADHD were more likely to report having been involved in an accident within the previous five years. Simulation data showed that time of day of participation in the experiment were significantly related to likelihood of collision, and that these effects were further exacerbated by ADHD status. Participants with ADHD were more likely than controls to be involved in a crash in the simulator regardless of time of day, but the effects were particularly pronounced in the morning, and the rate of increase in accident involvement from the late afternoon into the evening was greater among participants with ADHD. No differences in self-reported sleep patterns or caffeine use were found between participants with ADHD and controls. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that drivers with ADHD became fatigued more quickly than controls. Such drivers thus face greater risk of involvement in accidents on highways or open roadways where the visual and task monotony of the environment contribute to greater driver fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan Reimer
- AgeLab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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