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Caballero C, Barbado D, Peláez M, Moreno FJ. Applying different levels of practice variability for motor learning: More is not better. PeerJ 2024; 12:e17575. [PMID: 38948206 PMCID: PMC11212619 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.17575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Variable practice is a broadly used tool to improve motor learning processes. However, controversial results can be found in literature about the success of this type of practice compared to constant practice. This study explored one potential reason for this controversy: the manipulation of variable practice load applied during practice and its effects according to the initial performance level and the initial intrinsic variability of the learner. Method Sixty-five participants were grouped into four practice schedules to learn a serial throwing task, in which the training load of variable practice was manipulated: one constant practice group and three groups with different variable practice loads applied. After a pre-test, participants trained for 2 weeks. A post-test and three retests (96 h, 2 weeks and 1 month) were carried out after training. The participants' throwing accuracy was assessed through error parameters and their initial intrinsic motor variability was assessed by the autocorrelation coefficient of the error. Results The four groups improved their throwing performance. Pairwise comparisons and effect sizes showed larger error reduction in the low variability group. Different loads of variable practice seem to induce different performance improvements in a throwing task. The modulation of the variable practice load seems to be a step forward to clarify the controversy about its benefits, but it has to be guided by the individuals' features, mainly by the initial intrinsic variability of the learner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Caballero
- Sport Sciences Department, Sport Research Centre, Universiad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Elche, Alicante, Spain
- Neurosciences Research Group, Alicante Institute for Health and Biomedical Research (ISABIAL), Spain, Alicante, Spain
| | - David Barbado
- Sport Sciences Department, Sport Research Centre, Universiad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Elche, Alicante, Spain
- Neurosciences Research Group, Alicante Institute for Health and Biomedical Research (ISABIAL), Spain, Alicante, Spain
| | - Manuel Peláez
- Sport Sciences Department, Sport Research Centre, Universiad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | - Francisco J. Moreno
- Sport Sciences Department, Sport Research Centre, Universiad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Elche, Alicante, Spain
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Czyż SH, Zvonař M, Pretorius E. The Development of Generalized Motor Program in Constant and Variable Practice Conditions. Front Psychol 2019; 10:2760. [PMID: 31920813 PMCID: PMC6927299 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The main objective of our study was to determine whether constant and variable practice conditions lead to the development of different memory representations (GMP) and as a result, they benefit performance of a skill differently. We compared one of the Generalized Motor Program (GMP) invariant features, i.e., relative timing, of the same variation of skill developed in constant and variable practice conditions. In two experiments, participants, naïve to the basketball, were practicing free throws, receiving the same amount of practice. In constant conditions they practiced at one distance only (4.57 m), whereas in variable conditions they practiced at seven (2.74, 3.35, 3.96, 4.57, 5.18, 5.79, and 6.4 m) and five (3.35, 3.96, 4.57, 5.18, and 5.79 m) distances, in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively. We found that relative timing of skills developed in constant and variable practice conditions is the same, confirming that these practice conditions form the same memory representation. However, we also observed that constant practice (CP) conditions resulted in overall shorter movement time as compared to the skill practiced in variable conditions. We hypothesized that it may be due to the facilitation of parameters assignment as it takes place in especial skill.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanisław H Czyż
- Department of Sport Didactics, University School of Physical Education in Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland.,Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia.,Physical Activity, Sport and Recreation Research Focus Area, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Martin Zvonař
- Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Elric Pretorius
- Physical Activity, Sport and Recreation Research Focus Area, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
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Czyż SH, Zvonař M, Borysiuk Z, Nykodým J, Oleśniewicz P. Gaze Behavior in Basketball Free Throws Developed in Constant and Variable Practice. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16203875. [PMID: 31614871 PMCID: PMC6843860 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16203875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Revised: 10/05/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
There are a limited number of studies focusing on the mechanisms explaining why variable practice gives an advantage in a novel situation and constant practice in performance in trained conditions. We hypothesized that this may be due to the different gaze behavior that is developed under different conditions. Twenty participants, randomly assigned to two different groups, practiced basketball free throws for three consecutive days, performing 100 throws per day. The constant group (n = 10) practiced at a free throw distance (4.57 m) only. The variable practice group (n = 10) randomly performed 20 shots per five throw distances (3.35, 3.96, 4.57, 5.18, and 5.79 m) on each day, also accumulating 100 shots per day. We analyzed the total gaze fixation duration, a number of fixations, and the average fixation duration on a basketball rim in a pretest and posttest at the 4.57 m distance. We computed a linear mixed model with test (pretest–posttest), group (constant–variable), and test × group interaction in order to analyze the total fixation duration and number of fixations. The average fixation duration was analyzed with a repeated measure two-way ANOVA, with practice conditions as a between-participants factor and test type as a within-participants factor. We found that the total fixation duration increased significantly in the posttest, regardless of the practice conditions (p < 0.001, effect size = 0.504). The number of fixations also increased significantly in the posttest (p = 0.037, effect size = 0.246). The average fixation duration increased in both groups; however, insignificantly. We also did not find any significant differences between groups. Our results suggest that variable and constant practice conditions may lead to the development of similar gaze behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanisław H Czyż
- Department of Sport Didactics, University School of Physical Education in Wrocław, 51-612 Wrocław, Poland.
- Physical Activity, Sport, and Recreation focus group, North-West University in Potchefstroom, 2520 Potchefstroom, South Africa.
- Faculty of Sport Studies, Masaryk University in Brno, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Martin Zvonař
- Faculty of Sport Studies, Masaryk University in Brno, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Zbigniew Borysiuk
- Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Opole University of Technology, 45-758 Opole, Poland.
| | - Jiří Nykodým
- Faculty of Sport Studies, Masaryk University in Brno, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Piotr Oleśniewicz
- Faculty of Physical Education, University School of Physical Education in Wrocław, 51-612 Wrocław, Poland.
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Nakano N, Fukashiro S, Yoshioka S. The effect of increased shooting distance on energy flow in basketball jump shot. Sports Biomech 2018; 19:366-381. [PMID: 30001184 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2018.1480728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study is to clarify the effect of shooting distance on energy flow in basketball jump shot. Ten male right-handed basketball players participated in this study, and three successful shots at three different distances (short condition, equating to a free-throw; long condition, equating to a three-point shot; and mid condition, equating to the mid-point of the short- and long-condition shots) were recorded using a motion capture system and force platforms. Kinetic variables of joints during shooting were analysed using inverse dynamics method. Our results showed that the joint work was not significantly different for short- and mid-condition shots; however, the amount of energy transferred from the torso to the shooting arm by the shoulder joint force increased significantly for the mid-condition shots ([Formula: see text] as opposed to [Formula: see text] J/kg, [Formula: see text]), whereas between the mid- and long-conditions, it was found that the joint work in the lower limbs increased significantly ([Formula: see text] as opposed to [Formula: see text] J/kg, [Formula: see text]). These results suggest that sufficient energy transfer from the lower limbs to the shoot arms is important to keep the motions of the shooting arms approximately constant when shooting from various distances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuyasu Nakano
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Senshi Fukashiro
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Yoshioka
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Vetter RE, Yu H, Foose AK. Effects of Moderators on Physical Training Programs: A Bayesian Approach. J Strength Cond Res 2016; 31:1868-1878. [PMID: 27501286 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000001585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Vetter, RE, Yu, H, and Foose, AK. Effects of moderators on physical training programs: a Bayesian approach. J Strength Cond Res 31(7): 1868-1878, 2017-Creating an optimal physical training program is an important focus in sport and exercise research. The purpose of this research was to examine how different moderators (age, ability level, training weeks, training frequencies, and intensity) impacted the physiological outcomes of specific exercise training programs (muscular strength, speed, power, and cardiorespiratory) using the Bayesian method. A Bayesian approach uses flexible frameworks to determine the pattern of outcomes. This Bayesian analysis combined data generated by 34 previous studies from 1984 to 2015 to improve estimates of effects; these studies rendered 312 cases. The analyses for age were strong in cardiorespiratory and speed but less in power and muscular strength. Ability level was not a predictor of outcomes in each of the 4 areas. Training weeks contributed to power and cardiorespiratory, but not for speed, whereas for strength the effect size (ES) increased only up to the 16th week. Training frequency was a nonsignificant predictor of ES; most of the included studies within this analysis used only training frequencies of 2 or 3 days. Training intensity clearly contributed to the ES. The pattern of influence for intensity level in strength was greatest between 55 and 80%, in power it increased at 65% and continued in a positive linear pattern, in cardiorespiratory it increased up to 65% and then plateaued, and for speed no inferences could be made.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rheba E Vetter
- 1School of Health Science and Wellness, Northwest Missouri State University, Maryville, Missouri; and 2Department of Information System and Analytics, Farmer Business School, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio
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Czyż SH, Moss SJ. Specificity vs. Generalizability: Emergence of Especial Skills in Classical Archery. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1178. [PMID: 27547196 PMCID: PMC4974245 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
There is evidence that the recall schema becomes more refined after constant practice. It is also believed that massive amounts of constant practice eventually leads to the emergence of especial skills, i.e., skills that have an advantage in performance over other actions from within the same class of actions. This advantage in performance was noticed when one-criterion practice, e.g., basketball free throws, was compared to non-practiced variations of the skill. However, there is no evidence whether multi-criterion massive amounts of practice would give an advantage to the trained variations of the skill over non-trained, i.e., whether such practice would eventually lead to the development of (multi)-especial skills. The purpose of this study was to determine whether massive amount of practice involving four criterion variations of the skill will give an advantage in performance to the criterions over the class of actions. In two experiments, we analyzed data from female (n = 8) and male classical archers (n = 10), who were required to shoot 30 shots from four accustomed distances, i.e., males at 30, 50, 70, and 90 m and females at 30, 50, 60, and 70 m. The shooting accuracy for the untrained distances (16 distances in men and 14 in women) was used to compile a regression line for distance over shooting accuracy. Regression determined (expected) values were then compared to the shooting accuracy of the trained distances. Data revealed no significant differences between real and expected results at trained distances, except for the 70 m shooting distance in men. The F-test for lack of fit showed that the regression computed for trained and non-trained shooting distances was linear. It can be concluded that especial skills emerge only after very specific practice, i.e., constant practice limited to only one variation of the skill.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanisław H. Czyż
- Physical Activity, Sport and Recreation Research Focus Area, North-West UniversityPotchefstroom, South Africa
- Department of Sport Didactics, University School of Physical Education in WrocławWrocław, Poland
| | - Sarah J. Moss
- Physical Activity, Sport and Recreation Research Focus Area, North-West UniversityPotchefstroom, South Africa
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Czyż SH, Kwon OS, Marzec J, Styrkowiec P, Breslin G. Visual uncertainty influences the extent of an especial skill. Hum Mov Sci 2015; 44:143-9. [PMID: 26342796 DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2015.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2014] [Revised: 08/18/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
An especial skill in basketball emerges through highly repetitive practice at the 15 ft free throw line. The extent of the role vision plays in the emergence of an especial skill is unknown. We examined the especial skills of ten skilled basketball players in normal and blurred vision conditions where participants wore corrective lenses. As such, we selectively manipulated visual information without affecting the participants' explicit knowledge that they were shooting free throws. We found that shot efficiency was significantly lower in blurred vision conditions as expected, and that the concave shape of shot proficiency function in normal vision conditions became approximately linear in blurred vision conditions. By applying a recently proposed generalization model of especial skills, we suggest that the linearity of shot proficiency function reflects the participants' lesser dependence on especial skill in blurred vision conditions. The findings further characterize the role of visual context in the emergence of an especial skill.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Czyż
- Physical Activity, Sport and Recreation Research Focus Area, North-West University, South Africa; Department of Sport Didactics, University School of Physical Education in Wrocław, Poland.
| | - O-S Kwon
- Department of Human Factors Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, South Korea
| | - J Marzec
- Department of Econometrics and Operations Research, Cracow University of Economics, Poland
| | - P Styrkowiec
- Institute of Psychology, University of Wroclaw, Poland
| | - G Breslin
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Institute, Ulster University, Newtownabbey, United Kingdom
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Cañal-Bruland R, Balch L, Niesert L. Judgement bias in predicting the success of one’s own basketball free throws but not those of others. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2014; 79:548-55. [DOI: 10.1007/s00426-014-0592-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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