The development of self-perceptions of ability and achievement goals and their relations in physical education

Children’s Motor Skill Learning is Influenced by Their Conceptions of Ability

The present study investigated the effects of different ability conceptions on motor skills learning in 6-, 10-, and 14-year-old children. In each age group, different groups were given either inherent-ability or acquirable-skill instructions before they began practicing a throwing task. Participants were blindfolded and were asked to throw beanbags at a target placed on the floor at a distance of 3 m. All participants performed 40 practice trials and received feedback about the accuracy of their throws after each trial. One day after practice, retention and transfer (greater target distance) tests without instructions or feedback were conducted to assess learning effects. Older participants generally had higher accuracy scores than younger participants. Importantly, instructions emphasizing the learnability of the skill resulted in greater throwing accuracy on the retention test than did those implying an underlying inherent ability. On the transfer test, the same effect was seen for the 14-year-olds, but not for the younger age groups, suggesting that adolescents may be more vulnerable to the threat of their inherent ability being exposed. The present findings demonstrate the importance of ability conceptions for motor learning in children and adolescents. They also add to the mounting evidence of motivational influences on motor skill learning.

Including overweight or obese students in physical education: a social ecological constraint model

In this review, we propose a social ecological constraint model to study inclusion of overweight or obese students in physical education by integrating key concepts and assumptions from ecological constraint theory in motor development and social ecological models in health promotion and behavior. The social ecological constraint model proposes that constraints exist on five different levels and interact within and across levels to affect overweight students' engagement, learning, and physical activity in physical education. This model can provide a theoretical framework to guide and organize research on the inclusion of overweight students. It can also guide teachers in manipulating these constraints to create a culture for inclusion and provide instruction to meet the needs of overweight or obese students.

Self-determination and goal orientation in track and field

This study investigated gender, age group and locality differences in adolescent athletes' self-determination motivation and goal orientations in track and field. It also examined the relationship between the self-determination theory and achievement goal theory. A total of 632 (349 boys, 283 girls) adolescent athletes (aged 13-18 years) completed the Sports Motivation Scale and Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire. Results indicated significant differences between gender on intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, amotivation (t(630) = 4.10, p < 0.05) and ego orientation (t(630) = 2.48, p < 0.05). Male students reported higher intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, amotivation and ego orientation. A significant difference was found between age groups on task orientation (t(630) = 1.94, p < 0.05) and locality on ego orientation (t(630) = 1.94, p < 0.05). Older athletes showed significantly higher task orientation. Rural athletes had higher ego orientation whereas urban athletes have higher intrinsic motivation. Task orientation was related to intrinsic motivation (r = 0.55, p < 0.01), extrinsic motivation (r = 0.55, p < 0.01), but weakly related to amotivation (r = 0.10, p < 0.01). Ego orientation was related to intrinsic motivation (r = 0.30, p < 0.01), extrinsic motivation (r = 0.36, p < 0.01) and amotivaion (r = 0.36, p < 0.01). Task orientation was related to ego orientation (r = 0.29, p < 0.01). Multiple regression analysis showed intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation accounted for 30.5% of the variances in task orientation.

Are K-12 learners motivated in physical education? A meta-analysis

Previous studies devoted to K-12 learner motivation in physical education share a general assumption that students may lack motivation. This meta-analytic study examined published original studies (n = 79) to determine students' motivation level and the association between motivation and outcomes. Original means of motivation measures were converted and aggregated to determine motivation levels. Correlation effect sizes were calculated to determine the association between motivation and outcome measures. The analyses revealed that K-12 students are motivated regardless of the theoretical constructs used in the studies (M > 50). The correlation effect sizes (r = .20-.30, p < .05) indicate a weak association between motivation and outcome. The findings suggest a need to involve meaningful learning and pedagogy variables in motivation research.

Motivational responses to fitness testing by award status and gender

Fitness testing is a prominent element in many physical education programs, but there has been limited investigation concerning motivation constructs associated with the testing. This study investigated the relationships among physical education students' award status and gender to achievement goals, intrinsic motivation, and intentions. After they had completed a battery of fitness tests, 123 fifth-grade physical education students were classified into two groups: those who received awards and those who did not. They completed a series of questionnaires assessing motivational constructs. Analyses of variance revealed that students who received a fitness award reported higher levels of task-involvement, perceived competence, effort, enjoyment, and future intention than those who did not. Boys reported higher levels of ego-involvement than girls, but no other gender differences were evident. The findings from this study can be used to inform practitioners, test designers, and researchers about the ways fitness testing programs can be structured so that all students receive the potential benefits from participating in such assessments.

Effects of dispositional ability conceptions, manipulated learning environments, and intrinsic motivation on persistence and performance: an interaction approach

The present study used an interaction approach to investigate how individuals' dispositions about ability as incremental or fixed (entity), manipulated learning environments, and intrinsic motivation affect persistence and performance on a challenging, novel motor skill. Seventy-two female college students who were assigned to either an incremental or entity learning condition for instruction and practice completed questionnaires and attempted to learn the skill. The results indicated that participants oriented toward incremental beliefs were likely to be more intrinsically motivated. Participants who were intrinsically motivated were likely to perform better on a final skill test. The significant interaction effect on persistence suggests that participants who were highly intrinsically motivated in the incremental condition persisted longer than those in the entity condition.

Pedagogy research through the years in RQES

This paper examines the growth in research on teaching, curriculum, and teacher education in Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, describing how this body of work has evolved over the past 75 years. The research stream progressed from "expert" discourses about what physical education should be to scientific approaches that have generated a body of knowledge based on evidence rather than beliefs. Investigations focused on the teaching and learning process have evolved to provide research-based benchmarks for designing teacher education programs and evaluating instruction as well as informing effective teaching practice. We advocate for a broad view of pedagogy and argue that pedagogical researchers can make an important contribution to efforts to increase levels of physical activity through interdisciplinary projects.

A longitudinal perspective of the relationship between perceived motivational climate, goal orientations, and strategy use

Achievement goal theory suggests that goal orientations and the perceived motivational climate may influence one another and other motivational variables over time. Therefore, the purpose of this study was threefold: (a) to examine the relationship between perceived motivational climate and goal orientations over time (b) to investigate how goal orientations may fluctuate when the climate was in opposition to the initial goal orientation, (c) to determine how the climate may impact practice strategies. A set of inventories was administered to 162 college students at preselected times throughout several 16-week physical activity classes. Changes occurred in students' goal orientations, particularly when the perceived motivational climate was in opposition to their goal orientation. Aspects of the task-involving climate positively predicted practice strategies.

Using Achievement Goal Theory to assess an elementary physical education running program

Using Achievement Goal Theory as a theoretical framework, this study examined an elementary physical education running program called Roadrunners and assessed relationships among achievement goals, perceived motivational climate, and student achievement behavior. Roadrunners promotes cardiovascular health, physical active lifestyles, and mastery behaviors such as persistence and effort. Students were required to run/walk once a week during the school year in their regularly scheduled physical education classes. Participants included 116 fourth graders (67 boys, 49 girls), who participated in Roadrunners since kindergarten. Near the end of spring semester, students completed a 36-item questionnaire assessing achievement goals and perceived motivational climate of Roadrunners. Student persistence/effort was assessed by the number of run/walk laps over the year-long program. Performance was measured by a timed, one-mile run. Results revealed the mastery goal related positively to student persistence/effort for Roadrunners and to their one-mile run performance. Interaction between the mastery goal and perception of a mastery-focused climate emerged as a positive predictor of student one-mile run performance. Results provided additional empirical support for mastery goals and perceptions of a mastery-focused climate as beneficial to student motivation and learning.

Children's motivation in elementary physical education: a longitudinal study

The present study examined relationships among variables drawn from achievement goal theory and the expectancy-value model of achievement choice as well as mean level changes of these variables over time in elementary physical education. Participants (N = 207) completed questionnaires over a 2-year period: once while in the second and fourth grades and again when they were in the third and fifth grades. Results indicated that achievement goals, expectancy-related beliefs, and subjective task values were related to one another and were predictive of children's intention for future participation in physical education. Children's subjective task values of physical education decreased over time. Children in Cohort 1 (across second to third grades) generally had stronger motivation for learning in physical education than children in Cohort 2 (across fourth to fifth grades). Findings suggest the importance of integrating achievement goal theory and the expectancy-value model of achievement choice in understanding student motivation.

Children's motivation in elementary physical education: an expectancy-value model of achievement choice

This study examined children's motivation in elementary physical education within an expectancy-value model developed by Eccles and her colleagues. Four hundred fourteen students in second and fourth grades completed questionnaires assessing their expectancy-related beliefs, subjective task values, and intention for future participation in physical education. Results indicated that expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values were clearly distinguishable from one another across physical education and throwing. The two constructs were related to each other positively. Children's intention for future participation in physical education was positively associated with their subjective task values and/or expectancy-related beliefs. Younger children had higher motivation for learning in physical education than older children. Gender differences emerged and the findings provided empirical evidence supporting the validity of the expectancy-value model in elementary physical education.

Achievement goals, perceived motivational climate, and students' self-reported mastery behaviors

Achievement goals and perceived motivational climate are two important constructs in achievement goal theory, and they play critical roles in student motivation and behavior Traditionally, these two constructs have been examined separately. The present study examined relationships between the two constructs and students' self-reported mastery behaviors as well as age-related differences. Three hundred eight students in 4th, 8th, and 11th grades completed questionnaires assessing their achievement goals, perceived motivational climate, and perceptions of their mastery behaviors. Results indicated that achievement goals and perceived motivational climate were related to students' self-reported mastery behaviors. However, the relations varied depending on the students' ages. The older students, compared to the younger ones, appeared to be inclined more toward ego orientation and the ego-involved climate. A multiple achievement goals perspective is recommended for future research on relationships among achievement goals, perceived motivational climate and achievement-related cognitions, and behaviors in physical education.

The effects of augmented feedback on students' perceptions and performance

The effects of augmented feedback on perceptions of ability (SPA), practice behaviors, and performance during motor skill instruction of a novel task were investigated. Fourth-grade students (N = 103) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: (a) no feedback; (b) motivational feedback; (c) task feedback; or (d) motivation and task feedback. They then practiced simple and complex cupstacking skills. On a relatively simple task, the type of feedback did not have a significant effect on children's SPA, practice behaviors, or performance; but on a more complex task, differential effects of feedback were evident. Results indicate that informational feedback is an important factor in facilitating student engagement, fostering positive perceptions of ability, and ultimately improving performance on a challenging task.

Situational interest in physical education: a function of learning task design

Situational interest is the appealing effect of unique characteristics students recognize in a learning task during interaction with the task. It occurs when a learning task gives the learner a sense of novelty and challenge, demands high attention and exploration intention, and generates instant enjoyment during the person-task interaction. In this study, a repeated measure research design was used to examine the effects of task design on situational interest and the extent to which the effects were mediated by gender, grade, personal interest, and skill levels. Middle school students (N = 242) evaluated situational interest of four learning tasks with different cognitive and physical demands after having experienced the tasks in their physical education classes. Analyzed data showed that cognitive demand of a learning task played a critical role in generating situational interest. Grade levels, gender, and personal interest mediated the effects of task design on situational interest. But these mediation effects seemed rather limited. Physical skill levels had little influence on the effects of task design on situational interest. The findings seem to suggest that to enhance interestingness of a physical activity task, an option for physical educators may be to increase cognitive demand rather than reduce physical demand.