The Role of Impulsivity and Expectancies in Predicting Marijuana Use: An Application of the Acquired Preparedness Model

Cannabis use in context: Relations among impulsive personality traits, context, and cannabis problems

INTRODUCTION

Impulsive personality traits are associated with cannabis problems. Person-Environment Transactions Theory suggests that highly impulsive individuals behave differently in certain contexts, however little research has focused on the context in which cannabis is used. Therefore, the current study tested whether impulsive traits moderated relations between cannabis use contexts (social vs. solitary) and cannabis problems.

METHOD

In this cross-sectional study, college student who use cannabis (N = 435; 60.7% female) reported on their impulsive traits (i.e., negative urgency, positive urgency, premeditation, perseverance, and sensation seeking), typical cannabis use context (i.e., alone, with friends), typical cannabis use frequency, and past 30-day cannabis problems.

RESULTS

Both solitary cannabis use and negative urgency were associated with more cannabis problems. There were significant interactions between negative urgency and solitary cannabis use and lack of perseverance and solitary cannabis use, such that high and mean (but not low) levels of both negative urgency and lack of perseverance were associated with more cannabis problems the more frequently an individual used cannabis alone. There was also a significant interaction between sensation seeking and social cannabis use, such that high and mean (but not low) levels of sensation seeking were associated with cannabis problems for individuals who used cannabis more socially.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that impulsivity may potentiate risk for cannabis problems depending on the context in which cannabis is used. Prevention efforts may benefit from targeting protective strategy use in certain cannabis use contexts based upon an individual's personality traits.

An examination of the acquired preparedness model among college student marijuana users

ObjectiveTo examine the Acquired Preparedness Model using a behavioral impulsivity facet and positive marijuana expectancies to examine direct and indirect effects on marijuana use and related problems. Participants: 250 college students (61.7% female, 54% white) recruited from a southeastern university. Methods: Participants completed an online survey of delay reward discounting, marijuana expectancies, consideration of future consequences, and marijuana-related outcomes. Results: Delay reward discounting and consideration of future consequences related to marijuana-related problems, but not marijuana use. However, positive marijuana expectancies did not mediate the relation between impulsivity and marijuana outcomes. Conclusions: These results emphasize delay reward discounting and consideration of future consequences as important factors associated with marijuana-related problems. Interventions aimed at decreasing delay reward discounting and augmenting future orientation may be effective in college students who report light to moderate marijuana use. Future studies would benefit from longitudinal study designs using multiple impulsivity measures among light and heavy users.

Pathways of personality and learning risk for addictive behaviors: A systematic review of mediational research on the Acquired Preparedness model

OBJECTIVE

The Acquired Preparedness (AP) model proposes that impulsive personality traits predispose some individuals to learn certain behavior-outcome associations (expectancies), and that these expectancies in turn influence the escalation of risky behaviors. This theory has been applied to the development of behaviors such as drinking, drug use, gambling, and disordered eating. In the current study, we aimed to summarize empirical tests of this model over the 20 years since it was proposed.

METHOD

We used a descriptive approach to summarize tests of mediation across 50 studies involving n=21,715 total participants.

RESULTS

We observed a consistent effect of personality on expectancies (median effect size = .22), of expectancies on behavior (.24), and a small mediated effect (.05) of personality on behavior via expectancies. Impulsive traits that involve positive or negative affect showed the most consistent support for AP, as did positive expectancies. Most studies testing AP focused on alcohol, but research on other behaviors also showed support for AP.

CONCLUSIONS

The literature appears to support a small mediated effect consistent with the AP model. Future research should continue to clarify which AP pathways are most influential in explaining risky behaviors, and supplement correlational research with experimental and quasi-experimental designs.

Cannabis-induced oceanic boundlessness

BACKGROUND

Despite tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)'s reputation for creating dramatic effects at high doses, empirical work rarely addresses cannabis's impact on subjective responses common to the tryptamine psychedelics. We focused on these effects because they have preceded and covaried with the therapeutic impact of psilocybin in previous work.

AIMS

The current study examined if self-reported responses to cannabis products might parallel those found in clinical trials of psilocybin administration. We also investigated if measures of demographics and cannabis use might correlate with these responses.

METHODS

Participants reported the subjective effect of their highest THC experience using 27 items that assess oceanic boundlessness, a correlate of mystical experiences. They also answered infrequency items and questions on demographics and cannabis consumption.

RESULTS

In an effort to address concerns about replication, we divided respondents who passed infrequency items into two random samples. Self-reported "breakthrough" experiences were significantly greater than zero but significantly lower than those reported in randomized clinical trials of psilocybin (17-19% vs. 59%). Total scores covaried with perceived dosages of THC, but only in one sample. Heavier users of cannabis reported lower scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Self-report data suggest that high doses of cannabis can create subjective effects comparable to those identified in trials of psilocybin that precede relief from cancer-related distress, treatment-resistant depression, alcohol problems, and cigarette dependence. Given the disparate mechanisms of action, comparing THC-induced to psilocybin-induced effects might improve our understanding of the mechanisms underlying subjective experiences. This work might also support the development of a cannabis-assisted psychotherapy comparable to psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy.

Which came first: Cannabis use or deficits in impulse control?

Impulse control deficits are often found to co-occur with substance use disorders (SUDs). On the one hand, it is well known that chronic intake of drugs of abuse remodels the brain with significant consequences for a range of cognitive behaviors. On the other hand, individual variation in impulse control may contribute to differences in susceptibility to SUDs. Both of these relationships have been described, thus leading to a "chicken or the egg" debate which remains to be fully resolved. Does impulsivity precede drug use or does it manifest as a function of problematic drug usage? The link between impulsivity and SUDs has been most strongly established for cocaine and alcohol use disorders using both preclinical models and clinical data. Much less is known about the potential link between impulsivity and cannabis use disorder (CUD) or the directionality of this relationship. The initiation of cannabis use occurs most often during adolescence prior to the brain's maturation, which is recognized as a critical period of development. The long-term effects of chronic cannabis use on the brain and behavior have started to be explored. In this review we will summarize these observations, especially as they pertain to the relationship between impulsivity and CUD, from both a psychological and biological perspective. We will discuss impulsivity as a multi-dimensional construct and attempt to reconcile the results obtained across modalities. Finally, we will discuss possible avenues for future research with emerging longitudinal data.

Cannabis Use Is Differentially Associated with Individual Facets of Impulsivity through Expectancy Effects: A Comprehensive Application of the Acquired Preparedness Model

The acquired preparedness model (APM) posits that the relationship between impulsivity and substance use is mediated by drug effect expectancies. Though the APM has been utilized to explain college student cannabis use, a comprehensive model conceptualizing impulsivity as a multidimensional construct has not been examined. Guided by the APM, the current study examined facets of impulsivity as simultaneous predictors of cannabis use through positive and negative expectancies. College students (N = 478) completed an online survey assessing frequency of past-month cannabis use, facets of impulsivity, and cannabis expectancies. Using a bootstrapped path analysis, five facets of impulsivity were modeled as predictors of past-month cannabis use via positive and negative expectancies. A zero-inflated Poisson distribution was used, wherein dichotomous past-month cannabis use was examined independently of frequency. There was a significant indirect effect of sensation seeking on both increased likelihood and frequency of use through strong positive expectancies. Additionally, both negative and positive urgency were associated with a decreased likelihood of use through stronger negative expectancies, while lack of premeditation was associated with an increased likelihood of use through weaker negative expectancies. These results underscore the importance of examining impulsivity as a multi-dimensional construct in the understanding of college student cannabis use behavior.

Gender-based differential item functioning in the Cannabis-Associated Problems Questionnaire: A replication and extension

BACKGROUND

Gender bias in measures of cannabis problems may differentially affect how men and women endorse items. This gender invariance might mask, exaggerate, or otherwise obscure true distinctions in experiences of cannabis consequences.

METHODS

The Cannabis-Associated Problems Questionnaire (CAPQ), a measure of interpersonal deficits, occupational impairment, psychological issues, and physical side effects related to cannabis use, contained items with gender-based differential item functioning (DIF) in previous work-a finding we aim to replicate and extend (Lavender, Looby, & Earleywine, 2008).

RESULTS

In a sample of 4053 cannabis users, gender differences were apparent in global scores on the CAPQ. A DIF analysis revealed two gender-biased items, including one identified previously. Removal of these items did not significantly alter the scale's relation to cannabis use. Gender differences on the CAPQ persisted after removal of the two problematic items, indicating true gender differences still exist in men and women's experiences of cannabis-related consequences. Gender appeared to significantly contribute to scores on the full CAPQ and the short-form of the CAPQ with biased item removed, even after controlling for indices of cannabis use.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that the CAPQ evidences less gender bias than previously thought, perhaps due to diminishing gender-based stereotypes. Future work might opt to use the short form of the CAPQ to minimize gender-based DIF. In addition, potential biases in measures of substance use problems deserve more attention.

Replicating the Dimensional Structure of Cannabis Problems: A Taxometric Analysis

This study employed taxometric procedures to replicate a previous report of the dimensional structure of problems related to cannabis consumption. Method: Over 4,000 cannabis users completed an assessment of psychological, social, occupational, and physical harms (the Marijuana Problems Scale). Three taxometric procedures (MAMBAC, MAXEIG, and L-Mode) compared the current data to simulations with a base rate of problematic cannabis use derived from representative, large-scale data estimates. Results: All three procedures confirmed the continuous, dimensional nature of these cannabis problems and suggested no underlying taxon or category. Conclusions: Psychopathological disorders, including some substance use problems, have fit categorical models suggesting that they differ in kind (rather than intensity) from the behavior of the rest of the population. Cannabis problems, however, appeared to lie along a continuum with other forms of use. Given heightened awareness for the necessity of replication and a changing legal landscape for cannabis, a second look at the dimensionality of these problems seemed warranted. New data with a larger sample and different indices of problematic use confirmed the dimensionality of cannabis problems. This replication can inform predictions about the etiology, prevention, and treatment of cannabis use disorder. Researchers should expect cannabis problems to range along a continuum without categorical distinctions. Dividing users into groups of problematic and non-problematic users likely sacrifices meaningful variance. Harm reduction strategies likely can benefit all users rather than a targeted taxon with troubles. In addition, interventions will likely progress by small, incremental steps rather than dramatic, categorical jumps in progress.

Dysregulation as a correlate of cannabis use and problem use

OBJECTIVE

Cannabis users with a dysregulatory risk factor may be particularly vulnerable to engaging in more frequent and problematic cannabis use. Contemporary models of dysregulated behavior suggest that dysregulation emerges due to distinct mechanisms. The current study seeks to examine the dysregulatory correlates of cannabis involvement, including working memory capacity, delay discounting, impulsivity, and reward sensitivity.

METHOD

Participants were 104 non-treatment seeking frequent cannabis users (the average participant used cannabis 71% of the days/past 60 days [SD = 22%], with an average of two uses per day [SD = 1.2]). Mean age was 21.3 (SD = 4.3); 36.5% were female. Working memory was assessed via the Trail-Making Test-B and the Digit Span subtests of the WAIS-III, delay discounting was assessed via a computer-based task, trait impulsivity was self-reported via the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, and reward sensitivity was self-reported via the Reward Dependence Scale and the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale.

RESULTS

Structural equation modeling estimated the associations between different facets of dysregulation and cannabis involvement. Results suggest that poor working memory capacity and high trait impulsivity were associated with both use and problem use. Greater delay discounting was associated with problem use, but not with frequency of use. Low reward sensitivity was associated with more frequent cannabis use, but not with problem use.

CONCLUSIONS

Results confirm that the dysregulatory correlates of cannabis involvement consist of multiple dimensions of functioning. Prospective studies that assess the multidimensional structure of dysregulation and cannabis involvement are needed in order to disaggregate the dysregulatory antecedents and consequences of cannabis involvement.