An analysis of recent meditation research and suggestions for future directions

Meditation attenuates default-mode activity: A pilot study using ultra-high field 7 Tesla MRI

OBJECTIVES

Mapping the neurobiology of meditation has been bolstered by functional MRI (fMRI) research, with advancements in ultra-high field 7 Tesla fMRI further enhancing signal quality and neuroanatomical resolution. Here, we utilize 7 Tesla fMRI to examine the neural substrates of meditation and replicate existing widespread findings, after accounting for relevant physiological confounds.

METHODS

In this feasibility study, we scanned 10 beginner meditators (N = 10) while they either attended to breathing (focused attention meditation) or engaged in restful thinking (non-focused rest). We also measured and adjusted the fMRI signal for key physiological differences between meditation and rest. Finally, we explored changes in state mindfulness, state anxiety and focused attention attributes for up to 2 weeks following the single fMRI meditation session.

RESULTS

Group-level task fMRI analyses revealed significant reductions in activity during meditation relative to rest in default-mode network hubs, i.e., antero-medial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortices, precuneus, as well as visual and thalamic regions. These findings survived stringent statistical corrections for fluctuations in physiological responses which demonstrated significant differences (p < 0.05/n, Bonferroni controlled) between meditation and rest. Compared to baseline, State Mindfulness Scale (SMS) scores were significantly elevated (F(3,9) = 8.16, p < 0.05/n, Bonferroni controlled) following the fMRI meditation session, and were closely maintained at 2-week follow up.

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot study establishes the feasibility and utility of investigating focused attention meditation using ultra-high field (7 Tesla) fMRI, by supporting widespread evidence that focused attention meditation attenuates default-mode activity responsible for self-referential processing. Future functional neuroimaging studies of meditation should control for physiological confounds and include behavioural assessments.

The Practice of Spiritual Criminology: A Non-Doing Companionship for Crime Desistance

Spiritual criminology (SC) is an umbrella term for various criminological theories, models and practices that share reference to the spiritual dimension of human existence. Informed by a growing body of research that applies spiritual approaches to various aspects of criminology, SC attempts to provide a common thread shared by most approaches to spirituality: a voluntary self-journey that begins with an elevated level of self-centeredness and is aimed at self-transformation. Based on an extensive review of the literature, this paper proposes three general principles for spiritual accompaniment of people who offended: mindful non-doing, being and acting; love and compassion; and compassionate inclusion. These principles can be applied by combining several practices: renouncing control over knowledge, process and outcomes; creating a moral atmosphere that includes forgiveness and nonjudgment; and self-modeling. SC is shown to contribute to the rehabilitation of people who offended and also to crime prevention.

Focused attention meditation in healthy adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cross-sectional functional MRI studies

Meditation trains the mind to focus attention towards an object or experience. Among different meditation techniques, focused attention meditation is considered foundational for more advanced practices. Despite renewed interest in its functional neural correlates, there is no unified neurocognitive model of focused attention meditation developed via quantitative synthesis of contemporary literature. Hence, we performed a quantitative systematic review and meta-analysis of all functional MRI studies examining focussed attention meditation. Following PRISMA guidelines, 28 studies were included in this review, of which 10 studies (200 participants) were amenable to activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis. We found that regions comprising three key functional brain networks i.e., Default-mode, Salience, and Executive Control, were consistently implicated in focused attention meditation. Furthermore, meditation expertise, mindfulness levels and attentional skills were found to significantly influence the magnitude, but not regional extent, of activation and functional connectivity in these networks. Aggregating all evidence, we present a unified neurocognitive brain-network model of focused attention meditation.

Hypnotic-like Aspects of the Tibetan Tradition of Dzogchen Meditation

Dzogchen meditation has been practiced by Bonpo and Buddhist yogis for at least 1,200 years. Dzogchen utilizes methods of meditation and yogic exercises that are said to help one fully awaken from illusions of self and reality that cause suffering in life. The philosophy and experiential practice of Dzogchen is very similar to hypnosis. Dzogchen techniques utilize hypnotic-like practices of selective attention, visualization, and posthypnotic suggestion to help yogis experience advanced insights into the nature of mind. The experience of Dzogchen can be likened to the experience of hypnosis in terms of their phenomenological and psychophysiological effects. Finally, there are also many theoretical similarities between aspects of the ego state therapy, neo-dissociation, sociocognitive, and Ericksonian theories of hypnosis with the tradition of Dzogchen meditation.

Drug and alcohol workers’ view of positive psychology in the treatment of coexisting problems

Purpose

Positive psychology (PP) interventions have been suggested to be beneficial in the treatment of dual diagnosis (DD). The purpose of this paper is to investigate the perspective of psychosocial intervention (PSI) workers to explore the potential of a positive strengths-based approach in DD recovery.

Design/methodology/approach

A qualitative approach was employed with PSI workers who attended and observed a positive intervention delivered to DD clients. A focus group explored what these practitioners are already doing that resembles PP and their opinion regarding the utility of such interventions in recovery.

Findings

Findings revealed that practitioners were already engaging in positive practice, however, randomly and infrequently with limited impact. Although this new approach was found valuable, potential challenges were identified and a possible discrepancy between staff views of clients and clients’ views of themselves in terms of their potential was detected.

Research limitations/implications

The study involved a small and homogeneous sample. Further research is necessary to investigate staff views and ways of integrating PP with traditional treatment.

Practical implications

Rather than merely attending to the psychological problems and dealing with symptoms, it is also necessary to directly target well-being to enable people to flourish with consideration of their readiness to change.

Originality/value

Addressing a gap in the literature, the present study explored positive themes in current practice and forms part of the evaluation of a newly developed strengths-based approach for individuals with coexisting problems.

Neurophysiological Approach to Examining Knowledge/Belief in the Prayer of an Untrained Person: A Case Study

An adult female (22 years) of Christian orthodox religion was examined during the silent Lord's prayer, the most common, short prayer, with the aim of possible differentiation between belief and knowledge in her experience, analyzing the behavior of subgroups of theta and beta cerebral EEG rhythms, which occur through constant and occasional activation of cerebral regions. The participant was not trained in reading the prayer to herself or other people. EEG examination was performed by Nihon Kohden Corporation, EEG-1200-K Neurofax apparatus, in the monopolar longitudinal montage in the system of 10/20 electrodes aimed at determining the peak frequency value of each exploratory site. The method of result analysis was based on connecting cerebral regions into networks of 3 or more members according to identical peak frequency value, which was observed within subgroups of theta and beta frequencies and analyzed through a proximity index and continuity and discontinuity of activation during the observed period. Out of the definite observation sample of 3 s from each subperiods (beginning, middle and end), a window of 2 s was moving from the beginning till end of the period with 200-ms time lag. This resulted in six subsamples for each electrode and for each experimental situation (resting state, situation of prayer). Stable and unstable activity of the regions was assessed within subgroups via cartographic formulas equivalent to the states which subgroups of theta and beta imply in psychophysiological sense. The results indicated that through participant's inner dialogue-monologue there are elements of both knowledge and belief, and that this phenomenon is possible considering insufficiently specific circumstances of the experiment and the participant herself, such as her relatively young age and insufficient practice of praying. The paper discusses the types of connections between regions which imply knowledge and those related to belief according to our understanding and regarding findings in literature.

Breath of Life: The Respiratory Vagal Stimulation Model of Contemplative Activity

Contemplative practices, such as meditation and yoga, are increasingly popular among the general public and as topics of research. Beneficial effects associated with these practices have been found on physical health, mental health and cognitive performance. However, studies and theories that clarify the underlying mechanisms are lacking or scarce. This theoretical review aims to address and compensate this scarcity. We will show that various contemplative activities have in common that breathing is regulated or attentively guided. This respiratory discipline in turn could parsimoniously explain the physical and mental benefits of contemplative activities through changes in autonomic balance. We propose a neurophysiological model that explains how these specific respiration styles could operate, by phasically and tonically stimulating the vagal nerve: respiratory vagal nerve stimulation (rVNS). The vagal nerve, as a proponent of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), is the prime candidate in explaining the effects of contemplative practices on health, mental health and cognition. We will discuss implications and limitations of our model.

Migraine and Meditation: Characteristics of Cortical Activity and Stress Coping in Migraine Patients, Meditators and Healthy Controls-An Exploratory Cross-Sectional Study

The aim of this exploratory cross-sectional study was to investigate the characteristics of cortical activity and stress coping in migraine patients, meditation experienced subjects, and healthy controls. 45 meditation experienced subjects, 46 migraine patients, and 46 healthy controls took part in the study. Cortical activity was measured with the contingent negative variation (CNV), a slow cortical event-related potential. Stress coping was examined with the standardized Stress Coping Questionnaire SVF-78. A one-way analysis of variance was used to investigate possible differences between the groups. CNV-amplitude was significantly higher in migraineurs than in controls. The meditators showed significantly lowest amplitudes. Migraine patients used negative stress-coping strategies significantly more often than meditators and healthy controls. Especially the application of the strategy "rumination" was most frequent in migraine patients and least frequent in meditators. Moreover, frequent rumination was significantly correlated with high CNV-amplitudes. Cortical and stress processing in people with meditation experience was improved compared to migraine patients and healthy controls.

Mysteries of hypnosis and the self are revealed by the psychology and neuroscience of empathy

This article reviews a growing body of research and theory in hypnosis and neuroscience that supports the empathic involvement theory (EIT) of hypnosis (Wickramasekera II, 2001; Wickramasekera II & Szlyk, 2003; Wickramasekera II, 2007c). The EIT is a unified transpersonal theory of hypnosis and the self, which weaves together empathic elements of Dzogchen, neodissociative, neuroscience, psychoanalytic, sociocognitive, and other theories by proposing that hypnotic phenomena are inherently characterized by their deep involvement with processes of empathy and the self. The EIT proposes that the experience of hypnosis is embodied in a system of neural networks in the brain that utilizes empathy-related processes, adaptive resonance between perceptual input and top-down expectancies, and connectionist learning algorithms to (a) empathically enact the affect, cognition, body language, response expectancies, social roles, sensations, etc. that are presented to them during hypnosis in accordance with socio-cognitive theories of hypnosis; (b) engage in a convergent psychophysiological relationship with another person in accordance with psychoanalytic, Ericksonian, and polyvagal/social engagement system theories; (c) alter the empathic self/other (theory of mind) coding of phenomenological experiences during hypnosis in accordance with aspects of the neo-dissociative and socio-cognitive traditions; and (d) develop an experiential understanding of the illusion of self that may lead, in some people, to its transcendence in accordance with Bon-Buddhist, Dzogchen, and transpersonal scholars. A unified definition of hypnosis is proposed based on findings in the empathic neuroscience of hypnosis as well as a working model of the neuromatrix of the self.

Zazen meditation and no-task resting EEG compared with LORETA intracortical source localization

Meditation is a self-induced and willfully initiated practice that alters the state of consciousness. The meditation practice of Zazen, like many other meditation practices, aims at disregarding intrusive thoughts while controlling body posture. It is an open monitoring meditation characterized by detached moment-to-moment awareness and reduced conceptual thinking and self-reference. Which brain areas differ in electric activity during Zazen compared to task-free resting? Since scalp electroencephalography (EEG) waveforms are reference-dependent, conclusions about the localization of active brain areas are ambiguous. Computing intracerebral source models from the scalp EEG data solves this problem. In the present study, we applied source modeling using low resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (LORETA) to 58-channel scalp EEG data recorded from 15 experienced Zen meditators during Zazen and no-task resting. Zazen compared to no-task resting showed increased alpha-1 and alpha-2 frequency activity in an exclusively right-lateralized cluster extending from prefrontal areas including the insula to parts of the somatosensory and motor cortices and temporal areas. Zazen also showed decreased alpha and beta-2 activity in the left angular gyrus and decreased beta-1 and beta-2 activity in a large bilateral posterior cluster comprising the visual cortex, the posterior cingulate cortex and the parietal cortex. The results include parts of the default mode network and suggest enhanced automatic memory and emotion processing, reduced conceptual thinking and self-reference on a less judgmental, i.e., more detached moment-to-moment basis during Zazen compared to no-task resting.

Comparison of the Effects of Reflection and Contemplation Activities on Service-Learners’ Cognitive & Affective Mindfulness

This study investigates the extent to which service-learners’ mindfulness is affected by engagement in reflection (e.g., dialogue) and contemplation activities (e.g., labyrinth tracing). The results are compared within and between treatment groups, while covarying for participants’ initial levels of mindfulness. While both dialogue and contemplative labyrinth treatment groups reported increases in mindfulness as measured by CAMS-R, neither within or between group overtime-changes were significant. Contemplative labyrinth tracing as a reflection activity does not appear to be better than dialogue at increasing mindfulness in service-learners. However, contemplative reflection performed as well as traditional dialogue reflection.

Self-Centeredness and Selflessness: A Theory of Self-Based Psychological Functioning and Its Consequences for Happiness

The theoretical model presented in this paper emerged from several different disciplines. This model proposes that the attainment of happiness is linked to the self, and more particularly to the structure of the self. We support the idea that the perception of a structured self, which takes the form of a permanent, independent and solid entity leads to self-centered psychological functioning, and this seems to be a significant source of both affliction and fluctuating happiness. Contrary to this, a selfless psychological functioning emerges when perception of the self is flexible (i.e., a dynamic network of transitory relations), and this seems to be a source of authentic-durable happiness. In this paper, these two aspects of psychological functioning and their underlying processes will be presented. We will also explore the potential mechanisms that shape them. We will conclude with an examination of possible applications of our theory.

Acceptance: An Historical and Conceptual Review

Recognition of the value of acceptance of the self, others, and the flux of human experience, has philosophical and religious roots that date back thousands of years. The past two decades have witnessed a swell of interest in acceptance, as evidenced by an increase in acceptance-based therapeutic interventions, and a growing appreciation of the paradoxical nature of acceptance and personal change and the role of experiential avoidance in psychopathology. In this article we review historical and contemporary descriptions and definitions of acceptance, measures of acceptance, the relation between acceptance and change, and the role of acceptance in psychopathology and psychotherapy. Our central objective is to delineate a rich conceptual scheme that encompasses the diverse ways in which acceptance has been explicated in classical and contemporary writings, and to highlight the need for further validation of this useful and popular construct.

The meeting of meditative disciplines and Western psychology: a mutually enriching dialogue

Meditation is now one of the most enduring, widespread, and researched of all psychotherapeutic methods. However, to date the meeting of the meditative disciplines and Western psychology has been marred by significant misunderstandings and by an assimilative integration in which much of the richness and uniqueness of meditation and its psychologies and philosophies have been overlooked. Also overlooked have been their major implications for an understanding of such central psychological issues as cognition and attention, mental training and development, health and pathology, and psychological capacities and potentials. Investigating meditative traditions with greater cultural and conceptual sensitivity opens the possibility of a mutual enrichment of both the meditative traditions and Western psychology, with far-reaching benefits for both.

Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies

Neuroelectric and imaging studies of meditation are reviewed. Electroencephalographic measures indicate an overall slowing subsequent to meditation, with theta and alpha activation related to proficiency of practice. Sensory evoked potential assessment of concentrative meditation yields amplitude and latency changes for some components and practices. Cognitive event-related potential evaluation of meditation implies that practice changes attentional allocation. Neuroimaging studies indicate increased regional cerebral blood flow measures during meditation. Taken together, meditation appears to reflect changes in anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal areas. Neurophysiological meditative state and trait effects are variable but are beginning to demonstrate consistent outcomes for research and clinical applications. Psychological and clinical effects of meditation are summarized, integrated, and discussed with respect to neuroimaging data.

Mindfulness, acceptance, and hypnosis: Cognitive and clinical perspectives

The authors propose that hypnosis and mindfulness-based approaches can be used in tandem to create adaptive response sets and to deautomatize maladaptive response sets. They summarize recent research on the effectiveness of mindfulness-based approaches in clinical and nonclinical contexts and propose that the cognitive underpinnings of mindfulness approaches can be conceptualized in terms of the metacognitive basis of mindful attention, Toneatto's elucidation of the Buddhist perspective on cognition, and Kirsch and Lynn's response-set theory. They also suggest that mindfulness can serve as a template for generating an array of suggestions that provides cognitive strategies to contend with problems in living and to ameliorate stress and negative affect more generally. Many of the ideas the authors advance are speculative and are intended to spur additional research and clinical work.

Emotional effects of sertraline: novel findings revealed by meditation

Use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors continues to increase, as does concern about previously unrecognized, subtle side effects and questions about whether these drugs produce effects on healthy subjects. The authors report novel emotional effects identified by an experienced, psychologically healthy meditator who is a psychiatrist and researcher. On a meditation retreat, the subject identified a specific profile of emotional changes related to sertraline use. In particular, cognitive abilities and the emotions of fear and anger seemed unaffected. However, the emotions of sadness, happiness, rapture, and love were dramatically reduced in intensity and duration.

Subjective effects of antidepressants: a pilot study of the varieties of antidepressant-induced experiences in meditators

The use of antidepressants continues to increase, yet relatively little is known about their precise subjective effects, and there is growing concern about subtle psychological side effects. One novel investigative approach to these problems may be to use introspectively trained subjects such as meditators. Experienced meditators recently taking antidepressants rated antidepressant effects on multiple dimensions of experience and reported significant emotional, motivational, and cognitive effects and benefits. This study suggests that a) meditators may benefit both clinically and meditatively from antidepressants, b) meditators may provide significant novel information on antidepressant effects, c) meditators may prove valuable for phenomenological investigations of psychopathology, drug effects, and therapies, d) meditation may prove a helpful maintenance therapy for depression, and e) enhanced equanimity may contribute to the broad therapeutic efficacy of antidepressants.