Novel multifunctional triple folic acid, biotin and CD44 targeting pH-sensitive nano-actiniaes for breast cancer combinational therapy

Dual-color core-shell silica nanosystems for advanced super-resolution biomedical imaging

Fluorescent core-shell silica nanoparticles are largely employed in nanomedicine and life science thanks to the many advantages they offer. Among these, the enhancement of the stability of the fluorescent signal upon fluorophore encapsulation into the silica matrix and the possibility to combine in a single vehicle multiple functionalities, physically separated in different compartments. In this work, we present a new approach to the Stöber method as a two-cycle protocol for the tailored synthesis of dual-color fluorescent core-shell silicon dioxide nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs) using two commercial dyes as model. To facilitate the colloidal stability, the nanoparticle surface was functionalized with biotin by two approaches. The biotinylated nanosystems were characterized by several analytical and advanced microscopy techniques including Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS), UV-vis, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Moreover, advanced super-resolution based on structured illumination was used for the imaging of the double-fluorescent NPs, both on a substrate and in the cellular microenvironment, at nanometric resolution 100 nm, in view of their versatile potential employment in fluorescence optical nanoscopy as nanoscale calibration tools as well as in biomedical applications as biocompatible nanosystems for intracellular biosensing with high flexibility of use, being these nanoplatforms adaptable to the encapsulation of any couple of dyes with the desired function.

Mechanism of action of icaritin on uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma based on network pharmacology and experimental evaluation

Background

Uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma (UCEC) belongs to a group of epithelial malignant tumors. Icaritin is the main active compound of Epimedii Folium. Icaritin has been utilized to induce UCEC cells to death.

Methods

We wished to identify potential targets for icaritin in the treatment of UCEC, as well as to provide a groundwork for future studies into its pharmacologic mechanism of action. Network pharmacology was employed to conduct investigations on icaritin. Target proteins were chosen from the components of icaritin for UCEC treatment. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was established using overlapping genes. Analyses of enrichment of function and signaling pathways were undertaken using the Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) databases, respectively, to select "hub genes". Finally, experiments were carried out to ascertain the effect of icaritin on endometrial cancer (HEC-1-A) cells.

Results

We demonstrated that icaritin has bioactive components and putative targets that are therapeutically important. Icaritin treatment induced sustained activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt pathway) and inhibited growth of HEC-1-A cells.

Conclusion

Our data provide a rationale for preclinical and clinical evaluations of icaritin for UCEC therapy.

Hyaluronic Acid-Mediated Phenolic Compound Nanodelivery for Cancer Therapy

Phenolic compounds are bioactive phytochemicals showing a wide range of pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anticancer effects. Moreover, they are associated with fewer side effects compared to most currently used antitumor drugs. Combinations of phenolic compounds with commonly used drugs have been largely studied as an approach aimed at enhancing the efficacy of anticancer drugs and reducing their deleterious systemic effects. In addition, some of these compounds are reported to reduce tumor cell drug resistance by modulating different signaling pathways. However, often, their application is limited due to their chemical instability, low water solubility, or scarce bioavailability. Nanoformulations, including polyphenols in combination or not with anticancer drugs, represent a suitable strategy to enhance their stability and bioavailability and, thus, improve their therapeutic activity. In recent years, the development of hyaluronic acid-based systems for specific drug delivery to cancer cells has represented a pursued therapeutic strategy. This is related to the fact that this natural polysaccharide binds to the CD44 receptor that is overexpressed in most solid cancers, thus allowing its efficient internalization in tumor cells. Moreover, it is characterized by high biodegradability, biocompatibility, and low toxicity. Here, we will focus on and critically analyze the results obtained in recent studies regarding the use of hyaluronic acid for the targeted delivery of bioactive phenolic compounds to cancer cells of different origins, alone or in combination with drugs.

Amygdalin-folic acid-nanoparticles inhibit the proliferation of breast cancer and enhance the effect of radiotherapy through the modulation of tumor-promoting factors/ immunosuppressive modulators in vitro

INTRODUCTION

Breast cancer (BC) cells often develop multiple mechanisms of chemo- and radio-resistance during tumor progression, which is the major reason for the failure of breast cancer therapy. Targeted nanomedicines have tremendous therapeutic potential in BC treatment over their free drug counterparts. Searching for chemo- and radio-sensitizers to overcome such resistance is therefore urgently required. The goal of this study is to evaluate and compare the radio-sensitizer efficacy of amygdalin-folic acid nanoparticles (Amy-F) on MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects of Amy-F on MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cell proliferation and IC50 were assessed using MTT assay. The expression of proteins involved in several mechanisms induced by Amy-F in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells, including growth inhibition, apoptosis, tumor growth regulators, immuno-modulators, and radio-sensitizing activities were evaluated via flow cytometry and ELISA assay.

RESULTS

Nanoparticles demonstrated sustained Amy-F release properties and apparent selectivity towards BC cells. Cell-based assays revealed that Amy-F markedly suppresses cancer cell growth and improves radiotherapy (RT) through inducing cell cycle arrest (G1 and sub-G1), and increases apoptosis as well as reduces the proliferation of BC by down-regulating mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK/P38), iron level (Fe), nitric oxide (NO), and up-regulating the reactive oxygen species level (ROS). Amy-F has also been shown to suppress the expression of the cluster of differentiation (CD4 and CD80), and interfere with the Transforming growth factor beta (TGF- β)/Interferon-gamma (INF-g)/Interleukin-2 (IL-2)/Interleukin-6 (IL-6)/Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) induced suppression in its signaling hub, while up-regulating natural killer group 2D receptor (NKG2D) and CD8 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, the novel Amy-F either alone or in combination with RT abrogated BC proliferation.

Phytochemical-based nanodrugs going beyond the state-of-the-art in cancer management-Targeting cancer stem cells in the framework of predictive, preventive, personalized medicine

Cancer causes many deaths worldwide each year, especially due to tumor heterogeneity leading to disease progression and treatment failure. Targeted treatment of heterogeneous population of cells - cancer stem cells is still an issue in protecting affected individuals against associated multidrug resistance and disease progression. Nanotherapeutic agents have the potential to go beyond state-of-the-art approaches in overall cancer management. Specially assembled nanoparticles act as carriers for targeted drug delivery. Several nanodrugs have already been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treating different cancer types. Phytochemicals isolated from plants demonstrate considerable potential for nanomedical applications in oncology thanks to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative, and other health benefits. Phytochemical-based NPs can enhance anticancer therapeutic effects, improve cellular uptake of therapeutic agents, and mitigate the side effects of toxic anticancer treatments. Per evidence, phytochemical-based NPs can specifically target CSCs decreasing risks of tumor relapse and metastatic disease manifestation. Therefore, this review focuses on current outlook of phytochemical-based NPs and their potential targeting CSCs in cancer research studies and their consideration in the framework of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (3PM).

Multifunctional nanoparticle for cancer therapy

Cancer is a complex disease associated with a combination of abnormal physiological process and exhibiting dysfunctions in multiple systems. To provide effective treatment and diagnosis for cancer, current treatment strategies simultaneously focus on various tumor targets. Based on the rapid development of nanotechnology, nanocarriers have been shown to exhibit excellent potential for cancer therapy. Compared with nanoparticles with single functions, multifunctional nanoparticles are believed to be more aggressive and potent in the context of tumor targeting. However, the development of multifunctional nanoparticles is not simply an upgraded version of the original function, but involves a sophisticated system with a proper backbone, optimized modification sites, simple preparation method, and efficient function integration. Despite this, many well-designed multifunctional nanoparticles with promising therapeutic potential have emerged recently. Here, to give a detailed understanding and analyzation of the currently developed multifunctional nanoparticles, their platform structures with organic or inorganic backbones were systemically generalized. We emphasized on the functionalization and modification strategies, which provide additional functions to the nanoparticle. We also discussed the application combination strategies that were involved in the development of nanoformulations with functional crosstalk. This review thus provides an overview of the construction strategies and application advances of multifunctional nanoparticles.

Targeting Breast Cancer-Derived Stem Cells by Dietary Phytochemicals: A Strategy for Cancer Prevention and Treatment

Breast cancer is heterogeneous disease with variable prognosis and therapeutic response. Approximately, 70% of diagnosed breast cancer represents the luminal A subtype. This subpopulation has a fair prognosis with a lower rate of relapse than the other clinical subtypes. Acquisition of stemness in luminal A subtype modifies the phenotype plasticity to accomplish increased aggressiveness and therapeutic resistance. Therefore, targeting luminal A-derived breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) could be a promising strategy for its prevention and treatment. Extensive studies reveal that dietary phytochemicals have the potential to target BCSCs by modulating the molecular and signal transduction pathways. Dietary phytochemicals alone or in combination with standard therapeutic modalities exert higher efficacy in targeting BCSCs through changes in stemness, self-renewal properties and hypoxia-related factors. These combinations offer achieving higher radio- and chemo- sensitization through alteration in the key signaling pathways such as AMPK, STAT3, NF-ĸB, Hedgehog, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, Notch, GSK3β, and Wnt related to cancer stemness and drug resistance. In this review, we highlight the concept of targeting luminal A-derived BCSCs with dietary phytochemicals by summarizing the pathways and underlying mechanism(s) involved during therapeutic resistance.

Multifunctional nanocomposites DDMplusAF inhibit the proliferation and enhance the radiotherapy of breast cancer cells via modulating tumor-promoting factors and metabolic reprogramming

Background

Tumor-promoting factors (TPF) and metabolic reprogramming are hallmarks of cancer cell growth. This study is designed to combine the newly synthesized two nanocomposites DDM (HA-FA-2DG@DCA@MgO) and AF (HA-FA-Amygdaline@Fe2O3) with fractionated doses of radiotherapy (6 Gy-FDR; fractionated dose radiotherapy) to improve the efficiency of chemo-radiotherapy against breast cancer cell lines (BCCs; MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231). The physicochemical properties of each nanocomposite were confirmed using energy dispersive XRD, FTIR, HR-TEM, and SEM. The stability of DDMPlusAF was also examined, as well as its release and selective cellular uptake in response to acidic pH. A multiple-MTT assay was performed to evaluate the radiosensitivity of BCCs to DDMPlusAF at 3 Gy (single dose radiotherapy; SDR) and 6 Gy-FDR after 24, 48, and 72 h. Finally, the anti-cancer activity of DDMPlusAF with 6 Gy-FDR was investigated via assessing the cell cycle distribution and cell apoptosis by flow cytometry, the biochemical mediators (HIF-1α, TNF-α, IL-10, P53, PPAR-α, and PRMT-1), along with glycolytic pathway (glucose, HK, PDH, lactate, and ATP) as well as the signaling effectors (protein expression of AKT, AMPK, SIRT-1, TGF-β, PGC-1α, and gene expression of ERR-α) were determined in this study.

Results

The stability of DDMPlusAF was verified over 6 days without nanoparticle aggregation. DDMPlusAF release and selectivity data revealed that their release was amenable to the acidic pH of the cancer environment, and their selectivity was enhanced towards BCCs owing to CD44 and FR-α receptors-mediated uptake. After 24 h, DDMPlusAF boosted the BCC radiosensitivity to 6 Gy-FDR. Cell cycle arrest (G2/M and pre-G1), apoptosis induction, modulation of TPF mediators and signaling effectors, and suppression of aerobic glycolysis, all confirmed DDMPlusAF + 6 Gy’s anti-cancer activity.

Conclusions

It could be concluded that DDMPlusAF exerted a selective cancer radiosensitizing efficacy with targeted properties for TPF and metabolic reprogramming in BCCs therapy.

Targeted delivery of albumin nanoparticles for breast cancer: A review

Breast cancer has been identified as one of the most common cancers diagnosed in women. Various nanotechnology platforms offering unique features are considered in breast cancer treatment. Albumin is a versatile biodegradable, biocompatible, non-toxic and non-immunogenic protein nanocarrier. These characteristics attracted strong attention to fabricate albumin nanoparticles to deliver chemotherapeutic agents without major adverse effects. Albumin nanoparticles can undergo surface modifications using different ligands promoting tumor-targeted drug delivery. Moreover, multifunctional albumin nanoparticle is an upcoming strategy to attain efficient cancer therapy. This review gives an account of the potential albumin nanoparticles developed for chemotherapeutic drug delivery and its targeted approach for breast cancer. It also covers different multifunctional therapies available using albumin nanoparticles as breast cancer theranostics.

Dextran sulfate-based MMP-2 enzyme-sensitive SR-A receptor targeting nanomicelles for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an ordinarily occurring autoimmune disease with systemic inflammatory. Targeted drug delivery systems have many successful applications in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. In order to develop nanoparticles for targeted delivery of Celastrol (Cel) to rheumatoid arthritis and specific drug release, the dextran sulfate (DS) was modified as the targeting molecular by binding to the scavenger receptor of macrophage. The dextran-sulfate-PVGLIG-celastrol (DS-PVGLIG-Cel), named DPC, amphiphilic polymeric prodrug was synthesized and characterized. The resulting DPC@Cel micelles had the average size of 189.9 nm. Moreover, the micelles had ultrahigh entrapment efficiency (about 44.04%) and zeta potential of −11.91 mV. In the in vitro release study, due to the excessive production of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) at the inflammatory joint, the MMP-2 reactive peptide was used to crack in the inflammatory microenvironment to accelerate the release of Cel. The results have shown that the nanoparticles can effectively deliver Cel to activated macrophages and significantly improve the bioavailability. In vivo experiments showed that DPC@Cel have better anti-rheumatoid arthritis effects and lower systemic toxicity than free Cel. This study provided a new therapeutic strategy for the treatment of RA.

Novel polysaccharide building hybrid nanoparticles: remodelling TAMs to target ERα-positive breast cancer

With the increasing number of oncology patients and the use of chemotherapeutic agents, tumour multidrug resistance is becoming more and more prevalent. The search for new tumour treatment strategies to overcome tumour multidrug resistance is urgent. In this study, we designed GSH and ROS dual-responsive tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs)-targeted nanoparticles (NPs) for the co-delivery of the clinical first-line anti-breast cancer chemotherapy drug paclitaxel (PTX) and baicalin (Bai), which re-educates TAMs to alter their phenotype. We synthesised oligohyaluronic acid-mannose-folic acid (oHA-Man-FA, HMF) and astragalus polysaccharide-dithiodipropionic acid-paeoniflorol (APS-S-Pae, ASP), two hybrid materials that can self-assemble in water to form hybrid nanoparticles (HP-NPs) co-loaded with paclitaxel and baicalin (HP-NPs@PTX/Bai). The experimental results show that our designed hybrid nanoparticles can be specifically released in the tumour microenvironment and deliver the antitumor drug PTX as well as Bai, which reshapes the phenotype of TAMs, to the tumour site. The hybrid nanoparticles not only effectively re-educated TAMs from M2 TAM to M1 TAM, but also ameliorated the cytotoxic side effects caused by free PTX and provided better tumour suppression than free PTX and HP.

Dual Hyaluronic Acid and Folic Acid Targeting pH-Sensitive Multifunctional 2DG@DCA@MgO-Nano-Core-Shell-Radiosensitizer for Breast Cancer Therapy

Simple Summary

In this study, we have developed CD44 and folate receptor-targeting multi-functional dual drug-loaded nanoparticles. This comprises hyaluronic acid (HA) and folic acid (FA) conjugated to 2-deoxy glucose (2DG) and a shell linked to a dichloroacetate (DCA) and magnesium oxide (MgO) core (2DG@DCA@MgO; DDM) to enhance the localized chemo-radiotherapy for effective breast cancer (BC) treatment. The physicochemical properties of nanoparticles including stability, selectivity, responsive release to pH, cellular uptake, and anticancer efficacy were comprehensively examined. Mechanistically, we identified multiple component signal pathways as important regulators of BC metabolism and mediators for the inhibitory effects exerted by DDM. Nanoparticles exhibited sustained DDM release properties in bio-relevant media, which was responsive to acidic pH providing edibility to the control of drug release from nanoparticles. DDM-loaded and HA–FA-functionalized nanoparticles exhibited increased selectivity and uptake by BC cells. Cell-based assays indicated that the functionalized DDM significantly suppressed cancer cell growth and boosted radiotherapy (RT) efficacy via inducing cell cycle arrest, enhancing apoptosis, and modulating glycolytic and OXPHOS pathways. Accordingly, the inhibition of glycolysis/OXPHOS by DDM and RT treatment may result in cancer metabolic reprogramming via a novel PI3K/AKT/mTOR/P53NF-κB/VEGF pathway in BC cells. Therefore, the dual targeting of glycolysis/OXPHOS pathways is suggested as a promising antitumor strategy.

Abstract

Globally, breast cancer (BC) poses a serious public health risk. The disease exhibits a complex heterogeneous etiology and is associated with a glycolytic and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) metabolic reprogramming phenotype, which fuels proliferation and progression. Due to the late manifestation of symptoms, rigorous treatment regimens are required following diagnosis. Existing treatments are limited by a lack of specificity, systemic toxicity, temporary remission, and radio-resistance in BC. In this study, we have developed CD44 and folate receptor-targeting multi-functional dual drug-loaded nanoparticles. This composed of hyaluronic acid (HA) and folic acid (FA) conjugated to a 2-deoxy glucose (2DG) shell linked to a layer of dichloroacetate (DCA) and a magnesium oxide (MgO) core (2DG@DCA@MgO; DDM) to enhance the localized chemo-radiotherapy for effective BC treatment. The physicochemical properties of nanoparticles including stability, selectivity, responsive release to pH, cellular uptake, and anticancer efficacy were thoroughly examined. Mechanistically, we identified multiple component signaling pathways as important regulators of BC metabolism and mediators for the inhibitory effects elicited by DDM. Nanoparticles exhibited sustained DDM release properties in a bio-relevant media, which was responsive to the acidic pH enabling eligibility to the control of drug release from nanoparticles. DDM-loaded and HA–FA-functionalized nanoparticles exhibited increased selectivity and uptake by BC cells. Cell-based assays revealed that the functionalized DDM significantly suppressed cancer cell growth and improved radiotherapy (RT) through inducing cell cycle arrest, enhancing apoptosis, and modulating glycolytic and OXPHOS pathways. By highlighting DDM mechanisms as an antitumor and radio-sensitizing reagent, our data suggest that glycolytic and OXPHOS pathway modulation occurs via the PI3K/AKT/mTOR/NF-κB/VEGF_low and P53_high signaling pathway. In conclusion, the multi-functionalized DDM opposed tumor-associated metabolic reprogramming via multiple signaling pathways in BC cells as a promising targeted metabolic approach.

The role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in the pathogenesis and treatment of multiple myeloma (review)

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a refractory hematological malignancy characterized by aberrant accumulation of plasma cells. Patients with MM are susceptible to becoming resistant to chemotherapy, eventually leading to relapse. Progression of MM is largely dependent on the bone marrow microenvironment. Stromal cells in the bone marrow microenvironment secrete Wnt ligands to activate Wnt signaling in MM, which is mediated through the transcription regulator β-catenin. In addition, Wnt/β-catenin pathway encourages osteoblast differentiation and bone formation, dysregulation of which is responsible for proliferation and drug resistance of MM cells. As a result, direct inhibition or silencing of β-catenin or associated genes in the Wnt/β-catenin pathway has been proposed to be an effective therapeutic anti-MM strategy. However, the underlying regulatory mechanism of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway in MM remains to be fully elucidated. Herein, we summarized research advances on the specific genes and molecular biology process of Wnt/β-catenin pathway involved in tumorigenesis of MM, as well as the interaction with bone marrow microenvironment. Additionally, comprehensive summaries of drugs or small molecule inhibitors acting on Wnt/β-catenin pathway and targeting MM were introduced. This review intends to provide an overview of theoretical supports for novel Wnt/β-catenin pathway based treatment strategies in MM.

Add the Finishing Touch: Molecular Engineering of Conjugated Small Molecule for High-Performance AIE Luminogen in Multimodal Phototheranostics

Phototheranostics based on luminogens with aggregation-induced emission (AIE) characteristics is captivating increasing research interest nowadays. However, AIE luminogens are inherently featured by inferior absorption coefficients (ε) resulting from the distorted molecular geometry. Besides, molecular innovation of long-wavelength light-excitable AIE luminogens with highly efficient phototheranostic outputs is an appealing yet significantly challenging task. Herein, on the basis of a fused-ring electron acceptor-donator-acceptor (A-D-A) type molecule (IDT) with aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) properties, molecular engineering smoothly proceeds and successfully yields a novel AIE luminogen (IDT-TPE) via simply modifying tetraphenylethene (TPE) moieties on the sides of IDT backbone. The AIE tendency endows IDT-TPE nanoparticles with enhanced fluorescence brightness and far superior fluorescence imaging performance to IDT nanoparticles for mice tumors. Moreover, IDT-TPE nanoparticles exhibit near-infrared light-excitable features with a high ε of 8.9 × 10⁴ m^-1 cm^-1 , which is roughly an order of magnitude higher than that of most previously reported AIE luminogens. Combining with their reactive oxygen species generation capability and extremely high photothermal conversion efficiency (59.7%), IDT-TPE nanoparticles actualize unprecedented performance in multimodal phototheranostics. This study thus brings useful insights into the development of versatile phototheranostic materials with great potential for practical cancer theranostics.

Folic Acid and Poly(ethylene glycol) Decorated Paclitaxel Nanocrystals Exhibit Enhanced Stability and Breast Cancer-Targeting Capability

In part because of their high drug loading, nanocrystals (NCs) have seen extensive use in drug delivery, particularly for insoluble or poorly soluble drugs. It remains a challenge, however, to prepare stable nanocrystals with tumor-targeting capability. Here, we designed a novel preparation of stable paclitaxel (PTX) nanocrystals with efficient active tumor-targeting properties. PTX NC was prepared using a bottom-up method and modified with both poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and folic acid (FA) derivatives using film hydration. The resulting PTX NC@lipid-PEG-FA had a rodlike shape, with hydrodynamic diameters and drug loading values of 201.90 ± 2.92 nm and 31.07 ± 3.41%, respectively. The size of the PTX NC@lipid-PEG-FA was unchanged after 168 h in the presence of plasma, whereas nonmodified paclitaxel nanocrystals (PTX NC) exceeded 600 nm within 12 h under the same conditions. Cellular uptake and cellular growth inhibition experiments in 4T1 breast cancer cells showed the superiority of PTX NC@lipid-PEG-FA over PTX NC or PEGylated paclitaxel nanocrystals without FA modification (PTX NC@lipid-PEG). A pharmacokinetic evaluation in rats revealed that PTX NC@lipid-PEG-FA significantly prolonged the circulation of PTX in the bloodstream, in comparison with PTX NC or Taxol. Tissue distribution and in vivo antitumor studies in 4T1 orthotopic breast cancer-bearing nude mice showed that PTX NC@lipid-PEG-FA significantly increased the intratumor accumulation of PTX and efficiently inhibited tumor growth, in comparison with PTX NC@lipid-PEG, PTX NC, or Taxol. In summary, PTX NC@lipid-PEG-FA showed good potential for breast cancer-targeted delivery for insoluble therapeutics.

Single- versus Dual-Targeted Nanoparticles with Folic Acid and Biotin for Anticancer Drug Delivery

Cancer is one of the major causes of death worldwide and its treatment remains very challenging. The effectiveness of cancer therapy significantly depends upon tumour-specific delivery of the drug. Nanoparticle drug delivery systems have been developed to avoid the side effects of the conventional chemotherapy. However, according to the most recent recommendations, future nanomedicine should be focused mainly on active targeting of nanocarriers based on ligand-receptor recognition, which may show better efficacy than passive targeting in human cancer therapy. Nevertheless, the efficacy of single-ligand nanomedicines is still limited due to the complexity of the tumour microenvironment. Thus, the NPs are improved toward an additional functionality, e.g., pH-sensitivity (advanced single-targeted NPs). Moreover, dual-targeted nanoparticles which contain two different types of targeting agents on the same drug delivery system are developed. The advanced single-targeted NPs and dual-targeted nanocarriers present superior properties related to cell selectivity, cellular uptake and cytotoxicity toward cancer cells than conventional drug, non-targeted systems and single-targeted systems without additional functionality. Folic acid and biotin are used as targeting ligands for cancer chemotherapy, since they are available, inexpensive, nontoxic, nonimmunogenic and easy to modify. These ligands are used in both, single- and dual-targeted systems although the latter are still a novel approach. This review presents the recent achievements in the development of single- or dual-targeted nanoparticles for anticancer drug delivery.

Polymeric micelles in cancer therapy: State of the art

In recent years, polymeric micelles have been extensively utilized in pre-clinical studies for delivering poorly soluble chemotherapeutic agents in cancer. Polymeric micelles are formed via self-assembly of amphiphilic polymers in facile manners. The wide availability of hydrophobic and, to some extent, hydrophilic polymeric blocks allow researchers to explore various polymeric combinations for optimum loading, stability, systemic circulation, and delivery to the target cancer tissues. Moreover, polymeric micelles could easily be tailor-made by increasing and decreasing the number of monomers in each polymeric chain. Some of the widely accepted hydrophobic polymers are poly(lactide) (PLA), poly(caprolactone) (PCL), poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), polyesters, poly(amino acids), lipids. The hydrophilic polymers used to wrap the hydrophobic core are poly(ethylene glycol), poly(oxazolines), chitosan, dextran, and hyaluronic acids. Drugs could be conjugated to polymers at the distal ends to prepare pharmacologically active polymeric systems that impart enhanced solubility and stability of the conjugates and provide an opportunity for combination drug delivery. Their nano-size enables them to accumulate to the tumor microenvironment via the Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) effect. Moreover, the stimuli-sensitive breakdown provides the micelles an effective means to deliver the therapeutic cargo effectively. The tumor micro-environmental stimuli are pH, hypoxia, and upregulated enzymes. Externally applied stimuli to destroy micellar disassembly to release the payload include light, ultrasound, and temperature. This article delineates the current trend in developing polymeric micelles combining various block polymeric scaffolds. The development of stimuli-sensitive micelles to achieve enhanced therapeutic activity are also discussed.

Smart Responsive Nanoformulation for Targeted Delivery of Active Compounds From Traditional Chinese Medicine

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been used to treat disorders in China for ~1,000 years. Growing evidence has shown that the active ingredients from TCM have antibacterial, antiproliferative, antioxidant, and apoptosis-inducing features. However, poor solubility and low bioavailability limit clinical application of active compounds from TCM. “Nanoformulations” (NFs) are novel and advanced drug-delivery systems. They show promise for improving the solubility and bioavailability of drugs. In particular, “smart responsive NFs” can respond to the special external and internal stimuli in targeted sites to release loaded drugs, which enables them to control the release of drug within target tissues. Recent studies have demonstrated that smart responsive NFs can achieve targeted release of active compounds from TCM at disease sites to increase their concentrations in diseased tissues and reduce the number of adverse effects. Here, we review “internal stimulus–responsive NFs” (based on pH and redox status) and “external stimulus–responsive NFs” (based on light and magnetic fields) and focus on their application for active compounds from TCM against tumors and infectious diseases, to further boost the development of TCM in modern medicine.

Dual or multiple drug loaded nanoparticles to target breast cancer stem cells

Breast cancer stem(-like) cells (BCSCs) have been found to be responsible for therapeutic resistance and disease relapse. BCSCs are difficult to eradicate due to their high resistance to conventional treatments and high plasticity. Functionalised nanoparticles have been investigated as smart vehicles to transport across various barriers and increase the interaction of therapeutic agents with cancer cells, as well as BCSCs. In this review, we discuss the different characteristics of BCSCs, and challenges to tackle BCSCs at cellular and molecular levels. The mechanisms of action and physicochemical properties of the current BCSC targeting agents are also covered. We will focus on the rational design and recent advances of "Nano + Nano" or single tumour targeting nanoparticle systems loaded with dual or multiple agents to kill all cancer cells including BCSCs. These cocktail therapies include the combination of a chemotherapy agent with a BCSC-specific inhibitor, a phytochemical agent or RNA based therapy. Given the heterogeneity of breast tumour tissue, targeting both BCSCs and bulk breast cancer cells simultaneously with multiple agents holds great promise in eliminating breast cancer. The future research needs to focus on overcoming various barriers in the 'clinical translation' of BCSC-targeting nanomedicines to cure breast cancer, which requires a significant multidisciplinary effort.

Biotin-Decorated PAMAM G4.5 Dendrimer Nanoparticles to Enhance the Delivery, Anti-Proliferative, and Apoptotic Effects of Chemotherapeutic Drug in Cancer Cells

Biotin receptors are overexpressed by various types of solid cancer cells and play a significant role in tumor metabolism, growth, and metastasis. Thus, targeting the biotin receptors on tumor cells may enhance the efficiency and reduce the side-effects of chemotherapy. The aim of this study was to develop a biotin-coupled poly(amido)amine (PAMAM) (PG4.5) dendrimer nanoparticle to enhance the tumor-specific delivery and intracellular uptake of anticancer drugs via receptor-mediated endocytosis. We modified PG4.5 with diethylenetriamine (DETA) followed by biotin via an amide bond and characterized the resulting PG4.5-DETA-biotin nanoparticles by 1H NMR, FTIR, and Raman spectroscopy. Loading and releasing of gemcitabine (GEM) from PG4.5-DETA-biotin were evaluated by UV-Visible spectrophotometry. Cell viability and cellular uptake were examined by MTT assay and flow cytometry to assess the biocompatibility, cellular internalization efficiency and antiproliferative activity of PG4.5-DETA-biotin/GEM. Gemcitabine-loaded PG4.5-DETA-biotin nanoparticles were spherical with a particle size of 81.6 ± 6.08 nm and zeta potential of 0.47 ± 1.25 mV. Maximum drug-loading content and encapsulation efficiency were 10.84 ± 0.16% and 47.01 ± 0.71%, respectively. Nearly 60.54 ± 1.99% and 73.96 ± 1.14% of gemcitabine was released from PG4.5-DETA-biotin/GEM nanoparticles after 48 h at the acidic pH values of 6.5 and 5, respectively. Flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy of cellular uptake results revealed PG4.5-DETA-biotin/GEM nanoparticles selectively targeted cancer cells in vitro. Cytotoxicity assays demonstrated gemcitabine-loaded PG4.5-DETA-biotin significantly reduced cell viability and induced apoptosis in HeLa cells. Thus, biotin-coupled PG4.5-DETA nanocarrier could provide an effective, targeted drug delivery system and selectively convey gemcitabine into tumor cells.

Preparation and characterization of dissolving hyaluronic acid composite microneedles loaded micelles for delivery of curcumin

In order to improve the bioavailability of curcumin (Cur) and patient compliance, a type of novel hyaluronic acid (HA) composite microneedles containing Cur-loaded micelles was designed in this paper. On the one hand, the microneedles matrix solution was prepared by screening the optimal concentration of HA and the better proportion of HA to sodium carboxymethyl starch (CMS-Na). On the other hand, the amphiphilic polymer, named as Quercetin-Dithiodipropionic Acid-Oligomeric Hyaluronic Acid (Que-DA-oHA), was synthesized and characterized using ¹H-NMR. Subsequently, the dialysis method was used to prepare Cur-loaded Que-DA-oHA micelles with an average size of 172.6 ± 11.4 nm and zeta potential of - 33.71 ± 0.45 mV. A micromolding process was used to prepare the micelle-loaded HA composite microneedles. It had been found that when the concentration of HA was 200 mg/mL and the mass ratio of HA to CMS-Na was 2:1, the prepared HA composite microneedles had good mechanical strength. In-skin dissolution kinetics showed that the micelle-loaded HA composite microneedles could dissolve quickly in the skin. In vitro permeation study indicated that the microneedles delivered 74.7% of their drug load over 6 h, which exhibited remarkable drug permeation properties in a short time. Here, we creatively combined micellar technology with microneedle technology to rapidly deliver Cur transdermally for diseases treatment such as melanoma. Graphical abstract.