Functional outcome in limb-salvage surgery for soft tissue tumours of the foot and ankle

Ortho-oncoplastic surgery in foot and ankle: A narrative overview on reconstruction of soft-tissue defects after oncologic resections

INTRODUCTION

Malignant tumors of the foot are rare, and treatment strategies are challenging considering the complex anatomy of this area. In recent years, dramatic advances in technology and collaborations between different specialties (such as orthopedic, oncology, radiology, plastic, and vascular surgery) significantly changed the approach to complex malignant tumors without resorting to limb removal. The combination of the strengths of both orthopedic surgery and plastic surgery constitutes the modern definition of "orthoplasty." The aim of this review article is to provide treatment strategies that are available for reconstruction of foot and ankle in limb-salvage surgery after tumor resection, with a specific focus on microsurgical techniques in plastic surgery.

METHODS

We conducted a comprehensive search for relevant papers across PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Web of Science. We included patient-based studies reporting on procedures for soft-tissue reconstruction with small and large soft tissue defects. Indications, pros and cons, and technique tips are discussed for each type of reconstructive technique.

RESULTS

The search was done using literature of the past 30 years (from 1990 to date), resulting in about 725 articles describing over 2000 cases. Cutaneous flaps included lateral supramalleolar flap, medial plantar flap, reverse sural neurocutaneous island flap, medial leg flap, and lateral leg flap. Free flaps included anterolateral thigh flap, radial forearm flap, latissimus dorsi flap, gracilis muscle flap, lateral arm flap, and rectus abdominis flap.

CONCLUSIONS

The orthoplastic approach in musculoskeletal oncology is a collaborative model of orthopedic and plastic surgeons working together, resulting in a higher rate of successful limb salvage in patients at risk for amputation. Protocols, biologic substitutes, and surgical techniques are largely improved in the last decades increasing the possibility of functional reconstruction. Microsurgical strategies represent the new frontiers in these demanding reconstructions.

Functional outcomes of reconstructive flap surgery for soft tissue sarcoma: Long-term outcomes of functional restoration using innervated muscle transplantation

Functional outcomes associated with prognostic factors and innervated muscle transplantation after wide soft tissue sarcoma resection remain unclear. We retrospectively examined the functional outcomes of reconstructive flap surgery for soft tissue sarcoma. Twenty patients underwent innervated muscle transplantation with pedicled or free flaps for functional reconstruction of resected muscles. Thirteen latissimus dorsi muscles and one vastus lateralis muscle combined with an anterolateral thigh flap were transferred as free flaps using the epi-perineural suture technique. Six latissimus dorsi muscles were transferred as pedicled flaps with neural continuity. Postoperative functional outcomes were assessed using the Musculoskeletal Tumor Society (MSTS) scores for the upper and lower extremities of 22 and 24 patients, respectively. The mean MSTS score for all patients was 82.3 at 12 months postoperatively. The mean scores for patients who underwent reconstruction with pedicled and free flaps were 89.2 and 77.1, respectively. The MSTS scores for the lower extremity, tumor size ≥5 cm, and free flap reconstruction were significantly lower than those for the upper extremity, tumor size <5 cm, and pedicled flap reconstruction (P = 0.02, 0.37, and 0.008, respectively). The postoperative MSTS score for innervated muscle transplantation was 76.7 at 12 months and was significantly higher (83.7) at 24 months (P = 0.003). Functional outcomes were significantly associated with tumor location, tumor size, and reconstructive flap type based on the MSTS scores. Innervated muscle transplantation improved functional outcomes at 24 months postoperatively via sufficient recovery of the innervated muscle, not the compensatory recovery of the remaining muscle.

Does Wound VAC Temporization Offer Patient-Reported Outcomes Similar to Single-Stage Excision Reconstruction After Myxofibrosarcoma Resection?

BACKGROUND

Vacuum-assisted closure (VAC) temporization is a promising technique to achieve local control in aggressive soft tissue sarcomas. Despite its previously reported efficacy, adoption of VAC temporization remains limited, primarily due to the scarce literature on patient-reported outcomes (PROs) supporting its efficacy. This study compared the postoperative PROs after VAC temporization or single-stage (SS) excision and reconstruction for patients undergoing surgical resection for myxofibrosarcoma management.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of myxofibrosarcoma patients who underwent surgical resections at our institution from 2016 to 2022 was performed. Postoperative PROs collected prospectively for those treated with VAC temporization or SS excision/reconstruction were compared using a visual analog scale (VAS) for pain and three Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) questionnaires: Global Health Short-Form Mental (SF Mental), Global Health Short-Form Physical (SF Physical), and Physical Function Short-Form 10a (SF 10a). Absolute and differential (postoperative minus preoperative) scores at the 1-month, 3-month, 6-month, 1-year, and 2-year time points were compared.

RESULTS

The analysis included 79 patients (47 treated with VAC temporization and 32 treated with SS excision/reconstruction). All outcomes were similar between the groups except for physical function 1 year after surgery, in which the differential PROMIS SF 10a scores were higher in the SS group (p = 0.001). All the remaining absolute and differential PROMIS and VAS pain scores were similar between the groups at all time points. Postoperative complications did not differ between the groups.

CONCLUSION

The PROs for physical and mental health, physical function, and pain were similar between the myxofibrosarcoma patients who had VAC temporization and those who had SS excision/reconstruction after surgical resection.

The esthetic outcome of recipient sites of gracilis muscle flaps versus anterolateral thigh flaps: A retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Anterolateral thigh (ALT) and gracilis muscle flaps have been described as comparable reconstructive options regarding maximal flap dimension and indications. However, split-thickness skin-grafted muscle flaps are generally believed to be inferior to perforator flaps regarding the esthetic outcome of the recipient site. The purpose of this study was to challenge this assumption, comparing the long-term esthetic outcome of the gracilis and the ALT flap.

METHODS

One hundred forty-eight patients who had undergone free flap reconstruction with either free split-thickness skin-grafted gracilis muscle flaps (n = 86) or ALT flaps (n = 62) were evaluated in the study. Patients' satisfaction with the esthetic outcome, rates of flap loss, wound healing disorders and the necessity for thinning the flap or scar correction procedures were assessed.

RESULTS

Flap loss occurred in 4 of 86 gracilis flaps (4.7%) and 2 of 62 (3.2%) ALT flaps (p > .9999). Thinning or scar correction procedures were necessary for 6 of 86 gracilis (7.0%) and 4 of 62 (6.5%; p > .9999) ALT flap recipient sites. Regarding the overall patients' satisfaction with the esthetic outcome, scores were similar in both groups (2.667 [ALT] vs. 2.348 [gracilis]; p = .3739). Contour deformity, scar hypertrophy, and difference in flap color/texture in relation to the surrounding skin were comparable throughout the ALT and gracilis group (2.667 vs. 2.174, p = .2099; 3.333 vs. 2.739, p = .0912 and 2.500 vs. 2.174, p = .3159, respectively).

CONCLUSION

The gracilis and ALT flap are two equivalent reconstructive options regarding the esthetic outcome of the recipient site and long-term patient satisfaction.

Surgical excision of complex lipoma from the foot: A case report

Malignant soft tissue tumors of the foot and ankle are rare but diagnostic imaging and/or interventional biopsy are vital to establish the nature and grading of a suspicious tumor prior to definitive surgical intervention. The purpose of the study is to provide an account on how a symptomatic mass of the plantar aspect of the foot warranted a referral to a sarcoma center, highlighting the importance of having access to diagnostic imaging and a pathway to refer suspected cases to specialist centers. A single patient with a symptomatic soft tissue tumor of the plantar foot was referred from our service to the regional sarcoma center who considered to be benign, and therefore, open surgical resection was performed by our team. Histopathological analysis identified the excised mass as a lipoma. At 2 years, postoperatively there was no recurrence, and the patient presented with an asymptomatic foot. United Kingdom (UK) guidelines suggest that all soft tissue masses of suspicious nature, greater than 50 mm, deep seated irrespective of size, or fast growing lesions should be referred to a sarcoma unit prior to surgical management. European guidance identifies a threshold of 15 mm for a mass in the foot. Patients presenting with red flag symptoms irrespective of size of mass should be referred to a sarcoma center. Advanced imaging and multidisciplinary input to enable appropriate surgical planning is recommended for suspicious soft tissue tumors that present to the foot and ankle surgeon.

Comparison of flap reconstruction for soft tissue sarcomas of the foot and ankle

BACKGROUND

Foot and ankle soft tissue sarcomas (STS) are challenging for reconstruction due to limited surrounding soft tissue and weight-bearing requirements. Currently, there is a paucity of data examining the outcome of flap reconstruction following resection of a foot and ankle sarcoma.

METHODS

We reviewed 44 (31 female, 13 male) patients with STS arising from the ankle or foot which required coverage in the form of a free (n = 21), pedicled (n = 13), or rotational perforator flap (n = 10). The mean tumor size was 6 ± 5 cm, with 39 (89%) patients receiving radiotherapy. The mean follow-up was 10 ± 7 years.

RESULTS

There were no cases of amputation due to flap failure, with a 10-year limb salvage rate of 84%. Complications occurred in 19 (43%) patients, most commonly wound infections. There was no difference in the incidence of complications between patients undergoing a free flap and pedicled or perforator flap (odds ratio = 0.97, p = 1.0); with no difference in the mean Musculoskeletal Tumor Society (MSTS) score between patients with a free flap versus a pedicled/perforator flap (84% vs. 76%, p = 0.11).

CONCLUSION

Flap reconstruction is an essential part of limb salvage for foot and ankle STS. At final follow-up nearly all the patients are ambulatory with an acceptable MSTS score.

Complications, mobility, and quality of life in ankle sarcoma patients

AIMS

The aims of the study were to analyze differences in surgical and oncological outcomes, as well as quality of life (QoL) and function in patients with ankle sarcomas undergoing three forms of surgical treatment, minor or major limb salvage surgery (LSS), or amputation.

METHODS

A total of 69 patients with ankle sarcomas, treated between 1981 and 2017 at two tumour centres, were retrospectively reviewed (mean age at surgery: 46.3 years (SD 22.0); 31 females (45%)). Among these 69 patients 25 were analyzed prospectively (mean age at latest follow-up: 61.2 years (SD 20.7); 11 females (44%)), and assessed for mobility using the Prosthetic Limb Users Survey of Mobility (PLUS-M; for amputees only), the Toronto Extremity Salvage Score (TESS), and the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Activity Score. Individual QoL was evaluated in these 25 patients using the five-level EuroQol five-dimension (EQ-5D-5L) and Fragebogen zur Lebenszufriedenheit/Questions on Life Satisfaction (FLZ).

RESULTS

Of the total number of patients in the study, 22 (32%) underwent minor LSS and 22 (32%) underwent major LSS; 25 underwent primary amputation (36%). Complications developed in 26 (38%) patients, and were more common in those with major or minor LSS in comparison to amputation (59% vs 36% vs 20%; p = 0.022). A time-dependent trend towards higher complication risk following any LSS was present (relative risk: 0.204; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.026 to 1.614; p = 0.095). In the prospective cohort, mean TESS was higher following minor LSS in comparison to amputation (91.0 vs 67.3; p = 0.006), while there was no statistically significant difference between major LSS and amputation (81.6 vs 67.3; p = 0.099). There was no difference in mean UCLA (p = 0.334) between the three groups (p = 0.334). None of the items in FLZ or EQ-5D-5L were different between the three groups (all p > 0.05), except for FLZ item "self-relation", being lower in amputees.

CONCLUSION

Complications are common following LSS for ankle sarcomas. QoL is comparable between patients with LSS or amputation, despite better mobility scores for patients following minor LSS. We conclude that these results allow a decision for amputation to be made more easily in patients particularly where the principles of oncological surgery would otherwise be at risk. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(3):553-561.

Patient-reported functional outcomes in a cohort of hand and foot sarcoma survivors treated with limb sparing surgery and radiation therapy

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Describe patient-reported functional outcomes for hand and foot sarcoma survivors treated with limb-sparing surgery and radiation therapy (LSS + RT).

METHODS

Fifty-four patients with hand/wrist and foot/ankle sarcomas treated with LSS + RT from 1991 to 2015 were identified. Survivors ≥18 years old without subsequent amputation completed self-assessed functional surveys: Toronto upper extremity salvage score (TESS-UE) and Michigan hand outcomes (MHQ) surveys for hand; TESS lower extremity (TESS-LE) and Foot and Ankle Outcomes (FAOS) surveys for foot. Scoring scales: 0-100, MHQ and TESS; -26 to 56 and 25-59, FAOS core and shoe comfort, respectively. Higher scores denote superior function.

RESULTS

Five-year local tumor control was 88%. Fourteen of 24 hand (58%) and 14/18 foot (78%) survivors completed surveys. Mean TESS-UE and MHQ scores were 89.4 and 72.8, respectively. Mean TESS-LE, core FAOS, and shoe comfort scores were 92.4, 46.19, and 53.1, respectively. No factors correlated with outcomes. TESS-UE and MHQ scores strongly correlated (r = .87). TESS-LE and FAOS scores were associated with a poor correlation (r = .02 and r = .69).

CONCLUSIONS

The largest patient-reported functional outcomes analysis for hand and foot sarcoma survivors treated with LSS + RT demonstrates excellent local tumor control and acceptable functional outcomes. Further exploration of optimal functional assessment tools is needed given the potential scope differences.

A multidisciplinary approach to soft-tissue sarcoma of the extremities

INTRODUCTION

Soft-tissue sarcoma (STS) denotes a group of rare and highly heterogeneous malignant tumors of mesenchymal origin. Accurate histological diagnosis is critical for selecting appropriate treatment. Complete tumor resection is the primary treatment for STS, and the efficacies of radiotherapy and chemotherapy have been tested in the adjuvant setting to improve oncological outcomes. Because most STS lesions arise in the extremities, preserving limb function and managing limb impairment after radical local treatment represent significant challenges.

AREAS COVERED

This article reviews the current front-line treatments for patients with extremity STS and discusses the multidisciplinary team-based efforts needed to improve oncological outcomes and survivorship.

EXPERT OPINION

Given the rarity, variety, and complexity of STS, a multidisciplinary approach involving experts in various disciplines is vital for improving outcomes in patients ranging from diagnosis to survivorship. A major challenge is building a sustainable system in each region permitting all patients with extremity STS to be treated at high-volume centers with multidisciplinary teams dedicated to this rare and complex disease.

Selecting a free flap for soft tissue coverage in lower extremity reconstruction

BACKGROUND

Goals of lower extremity microvascular reconstruction (LEMR) include the restoration of function, prevention of infection, and optimal cosmesis. Indications for LEMR include large defects that are not amenable to pedicled options, a large zone of injury, and large complex defects. The novice microsurgeon should first master a handful of free flaps to develop an armamentarium of options for addressing such defects. The scope of this review is to provide free flap options for LEMR in any of the thirds of the lower leg. After reading this article, the reader will understand variations, advantages, disadvantages, indications, and tips for raising each of these flaps.

METHODS

Six most commonly used free flaps for LEMR are described in this paper, including the anterolateral thigh flap (ALT) and its variations, the radial forearm flap (RFFF), the lateral arm flap (LAF), the gracilis muscle flap, the rectus abdominis flap (RAF) and the latissimus dorsi flap and its variations. Indications, advantages, disadvantages and technique tips are discussed for each flap. Moreover, selection of the recipient vessels, preoperative management along with an algorithm are also provided.

CONCLUSIONS

The ALT flap is a workhorse in covering defects of the leg, foot, and ankle. It's the flap of choice at our institution, especially given the number of traumatic wounds seen as a result of motor vehicles, all-terrain vehicles (ATV), lawnmowers, and gunshot wounds (GSW). At times, the lower extremity zone of injury requires a distant donor site. The RAF can also provide coverage for large soft tissue defects but donor-site morbidity remains its main drawback. The LAF and RFFF provide two pliable options, one that provides pliable soft tissue with minimal donor site morbidity and another that provides a long pedicle. The free gracilis flap is an excellent choice for crossing the ankle joint. Lastly, the free latissimus dorsi is indicated for large defects of the lower extremity independently of the location.

Functional Outcome Measurement in Patients with Lower-Extremity Soft Tissue Sarcoma: A Systematic Literature Review

Background

The importance of functional outcome (FO) in the treatment of patients with extremity soft tissue sarcoma (STS) has been increasingly recognized in the last three decades. This systematic review aimed to investigate how FO is measured in surgically treated lower-extremity STS patients.

Methods

A systematic search of PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus was performed based on the PRISMA guidelines. The methodologic quality of the publications was measured using the MINORS tool. The results from the included studies examining measurement types, measures, and time of FO measurement were compiled. The FO pooled mean and standard deviation were calculated as a weighted average for the groups. The validity of the applied measures is reported.

Results

The literature search found 3461 publications, 37 of which met the inclusion criteria. The measurement types used were clinician-reported outcomes (n = 27), patient-reported outcomes (n = 20), and observer-reported outcomes (n = 2). The most frequently used measures were the Toronto Extremity Salvage Score (TESS) (n = 16) and the Musculoskeletal Tumor Society (MSTS) score 1993 (n = 12). The postoperative FO was relatively good. The pooled mean TESS and MSTS 1993 scores were respectively 83.3 and 86.2 (out of 100). Of the 10 previously reported measures, 3 provide validated FO scores. The methodologic quality of publications was generally low.

Conclusions

Based on this systematic review, several different methods exist for assessing FO in patients with lower-extremity sarcoma. The most frequently used measure is a validated TESS. The postoperative FO of patients with lower-extremity STS seems to increase to the preoperative baseline level during long-term follow-up evaluation.

Therapeutic options and postoperative wound complications after extremity soft tissue sarcoma resection and postoperative external beam radiotherapy

Soft tissue sarcomas occur most commonly in the lower and upper extremities. The standard treatment is limb salvage surgery combined with radiotherapy. Postoperative radiotherapy is associated with wound complications. This systematic review aims to summarise the available evidence and review the literature of the last 10 years regarding postoperative wound complications in patients who had limb salvage surgical excision followed by direct closure vs flap coverage together with postoperative radiotherapy and to define the optimal timeframe for adjuvant radiotherapy after soft tissue sarcomas resection and flap reconstruction. A literature search was performed using PubMed. The following keywords were searched: limb salvage, limb-sparing, flaps, radiation therapy, radiation, irradiation, adjuvant radiotherapy, postoperative radiotherapy, radiation effects, wound healing, surgical wound infection, surgical wound dehiscence, wound healing, soft tissue sarcoma and neoplasms. In total, 1045 papers were retrieved. Thirty-seven articles were finally selected after screening of abstracts and applying dates and language filters and inclusion and exclusion criteria. Plastic surgery provides a vast number of reconstructive flap procedures that are directly linked to decreasing wound complications, especially with the expectant postoperative radiotherapy. This adjuvant radiotherapy is better administered in the first 3-6 weeks after reconstruction to allow timely wound healing and avoid local recurrence.

Benefits Associated With Early Diagnosis and Treatment of Soft Tissue Sarcomas of the Foot and Ankle

Soft tissue sarcomas arising in the foot and ankle are often misdiagnosed, resulting in excision without adequate preoperative staging or surgical margins. The goal of the present study was to review a case series of soft tissue sarcomas of the foot and ankle with attention directed at unplanned excisions of sarcomas. An unplanned excision means that a patient either underwent an inadequate preoperative workup or the preoperative workup indicated a benign entity, resulting in surgical resection. We retrospectively analyzed the medical records of 10 patients with sarcomas of the foot and ankle treated at our institution. All soft tissue sarcomas were excised with the widest margin possible without any major bone or neurovascular resection to allow for preservation of the foot. All patients were followed up for a minimum of 8 months to assess pain, function, and complications. The patients were followed up for an average of 22.4 (range 8 to 44) months. Of the 10 patients, 6 had undergone preoperative magnetic resonance imaging without contrast and the sarcomas were read as benign or cystic masses. Two patients had undergone preoperative magnetic resonance imaging with contrast, and these scans were also misread. Despite having undergone previous unplanned surgery, none of these sarcomas had recurred after repeat resection with a wider margin at a mean follow-up of 22.4 (range 8 to 44) months. At the last follow-up point, 8 patients were alive without evidence of disease. Minor complications included lymph edema in 1, stress fracture in 1, and wound infection in 1 that resolved. Preoperative MRI with contrast is recommended before resecting any soft tissue masses of the foot and ankle. In the event of an unplanned excision of a soft tissue sarcoma, the patient should be referred to an orthopedic oncologist for definitive surgery to optimize the oncologic and functional results. In the present retrospective analysis, previous intervention did not seem to affect the prognosis, including local recurrence, distant metastasis, disease-free interval, and functional outcomes.

'Beware the lump in the foot!': predictors of recurrence and survival in bone and soft-tissue sarcomas of the foot and ankle

BACKGROUND

Although benign lumps around the foot and ankle are common, sarcomas in this area are frequently missed, and the consequences can be disastrous. Patients are often referred to tumour centres after suboptimal prior surgical excision. The predictors of local recurrence, metastasis and survival in this cohort have yet to be elucidated.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective review of 61 consecutive patients that were surgically treated for a bone (BS) or soft-tissue sarcoma (STS) of the foot and ankle between 1996 and 2012 at a specialist tumour centre. Factors such as tumour versus non-tumour centre surgery and BS versus STS were examined. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to determine which factors predicted local recurrence, metastasis and survival.

RESULTS

The overall 5-year survival rates were 74% in the STS group and 90% in the BS group. Furthermore, 33 (54%) patients had STS. Non-tumour centre surgery was performed in 23 (38%) patients. Overall local recurrence rate was 6.6%. Intra-lesional margins predicted a local recurrence, whereas non-tumour centre surgery was a predictor for developing a metastasis post-treatment. Tumour size, STS, radical margins (i.e. entire anatomical compartment removed with tumour) and metastasis, either at the time of referral or post-treatment, were associated with higher mortality.

CONCLUSION

STSs of the foot and ankle appear to have a worse prognosis than BSs. Early referral to a specialist tumour centre before surgical intervention is recommended.

What do we know about survivorship after treatment for extremity sarcoma? A systematic review

OBJECTIVE

The varied presentations and treatments of extremity bone and soft tissue sarcoma mean that the issues faced by survivors are diverse and complex. The aim of this systematic review was to investigate what is known about this topic with a view to identifying areas for further research or service development.

METHODS

This was a review of the English language literature identified from Medline and Ovid and hand searches published between January 2000 and September 2012. Results were compiled according to physical, psychological and social domains of survivorship.

RESULTS

Of 182 studies identified, 22 met the inclusion criteria. There is a wide range of outcome measures used and a need for more objective measures. Unsurprisingly, survivors of extremity sarcoma typically demonstrate lower levels of physical functioning than healthy controls. In addition, survivors demonstrate a substantial psychological morbidity.

CONCLUSIONS

Services for survivors of extremity sarcoma should include rehabilitation and psychological support, sexual health services, expert pain management, and support to return to work.

The pathologic response of resected synovial sarcomas to hyperthermic isolated limb perfusion with melphalan and TNF-α: a comparison with the whole group of resected soft tissue sarcomas

Background

Hyperthermic isolated limb perfusion with tumor necrosis factor-α and melphalan (TM-HILP) has been successfully used to treat limb soft tissue sarcomas (STSs) with high response rates. The data on the effectiveness of HILP-TM for the treatment of STSs are mainly based on various STS types. The aim of this study was to investigate the responses of synovial sarcomas (SS) to TM-HILP.

Methods

A total of 125 TM-HILP-treated tumors (STS^all), including 14 SSs, were included in the study. The tumors were subdivided into proximal and distal limb localizations. Tumor typing (using the WHO classification), resection status (using the UICC classification), and response to therapy were assessed using light microscopy. The SSs were tested for the SYT-SSX translocation using RT-PCR. The following tests were applied: a chi-squared test, a t test, and the Mann-Whitney U test.

Results

The SSs were localized distally more often than were the STS cohort (STS^−SS) (85.7% vs. 32.4%) and were smaller (5.8 cm vs. 10.7 cm). There were no differences in the responder/nonresponder ratios or the mean percentages of pathological regression between the SS and STS^−SS cohorts (74.0% vs. 76.0%). A general localization-dependent difference in the tumor responses to TM-HILP could not be detected in the STS^all cohort (distal, 72.0% vs. proximal, 78.0%); however, a UICC R0 status was more often observed in proximal tumors (distal, 50.0% vs. proximal, 71.4%). There was no association between the SYT-SSX type and SS responses to TM-HILP.

Conclusions

Because of the high response rates, TM-HILP is recommended for the treatment of SSs. The distal limb localization of TM-HILP-treated STSs was generally (STS^all cohort) associated with fewer R0 resections.

Analysis of immediate vascular reconstruction for lower-limb salvage in patients with lower-limb bone and soft-tissue sarcoma

BACKGROUND

Limb amputation has historically been the first choice of treatment for patients with bone or soft-tissue sarcomas involving major blood vessels. However, recent advances in surgical technique have allowed limb-salvage surgery. We reviewed our experiences with limb-salvage surgery and immediate vascular reconstruction following en bloc resection of bone or soft-tissue sarcomas of the lower extremity.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

We reviewed 23 patients (15 male and eight female; mean age, 43.6 years) who underwent limb-salvage surgery and immediate vascular reconstruction. Details of surgical factors and postoperative complications were evaluated.

RESULTS

Reconstructed vessels remained patent in 21 cases. The rate of limb oedema was higher in patients who underwent only arterial reconstruction after arteriovenous resection. Twenty patients could walk well without crutches a few months after reconstructive surgery. All patients avoided amputation. Two patients died of disseminated disease within 3 years after surgery.

CONCLUSION

The high rate of limb oedema suggests that venous reconstruction is necessary after arteriovenous resection. Vascular reconstruction and musculocutaneous flap techniques are useful in limb-salvage surgery and are indicated for patients who have achieved good disease control. Evidence Rating Scale for Therapeutic Studies: Level III.

Osteosarcoma of navicular bone. En bloc excision and salvage of the foot

AIM

To present foot salvage for osteosarcoma of the navicular bone with en bloc resection and reconstruction using bone allograft and talus-cuneiform arthrodesis. PATIENT AND SURGICAL TECHNIQUE: A 20 year-old male with a history of osteosarcoma of the distal femur presented to our department 5 years later with a metastatic lesion of the navicular bone of the contralateral foot. The patient received 4 cycles of neo-adjuvant chemotherapy with satisfactory response. Tumor shrinkage allowed en bloc excision of the navicular bone with clear margins. Reconstruction was done using a tricortical allograft and talus-allograft-cuneiform arthrodesis, secured with a mini-fracture plate (Synthes). Weight bearing protection was advised for 2 months and partial weight bearing for another 4 months. Patient received 4 cycles of adjuvant chemotherapy.

RESULTS

Three years postoperatively, the patient was free of local recurrence or distant metastasis. There were no signs of allograft resorption, fracture or non union. The patient was asymptomatic and full weight bearing. Ankle and subtalar joint motion was within normal limits.

CONCLUSION

Foot salvage after excision of osteosarcoma of the navicular bone could be possible if en bloc resection of the lesion could be performed. Talus-cuneiform fusion with allograft interposition is a viable reconstructive option.

Foot sarcomas: Factors affecting oncological and functional outcomes

Oncological and functional prognostic factors for patients with foot sarcomas have yet to be clarified. This study was undertaken to identify the prognostic factors for oncological and functional outcomes and the significance of adjuvant radiotherapy in achieving local control in patients with foot sarcomas. We reviewed 31 consecutive patients with soft tissue (24), and bone (7) sarcomas arising in the foot and analyzed the impact of patient characteristics on the functional and oncological outcomes. There were seven cases with clear cell or epithelioid sarcomas. Two of the 31 cases experienced local recurrence despite the fact that only two cases received adjuvant radiotherapy. Sixteen out of 18 cases of soft tissue sarcomas with limb salvage surgery underwent reconstructive procedures for soft tissue defects. Amputation required as a surgical treatment (p=0.002) was a poor prognostic factor. Larger size (p=0.029) and bone reconstruction (p=0.018) were poor prognostic factors for local recurrence-free survival, and amputation (p=0.001) and bone reconstruction (p=0.008) for metastasis-free survival in patients with soft tissue sarcomas. No significant factors were derived in patients with bone sarcomas. Larger size (p=0.021), amputation (p=0.016) and bone reconstruction (p=0.03) were poor prognostic factors affecting function in patients with soft tissue sarcomas, and hindfoot site (p=0.028) and amputation (p=0.028) were poor prognostic factors affecting function in patients with bone sarcomas. Surgery with a negative operative margin and reconstructive procedures achieved good local control and function. Patients that had tumors with larger size, necessitating amputation or bone reconstruction, required novel multimodal treatment in order to improve their outcomes.

Isolated limb perfusion with TNF-alpha and melphalan for distal parts of the limb in soft tissue sarcoma patients

BACKGROUND

Approximately 10% of soft tissue sarcomas (STS) occur in the most distal parts of the extremities. The standard therapy is local excision with adjuvant radiotherapy, but achieving wide resection margins might be difficult in the distal parts of the limb. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) and melphalan-based isolated limb perfusion (TM-ILP) is effective in locally advanced STS of the extremities. We report the results of TM-ILP for STS in the most distal parts of the limb.

METHODS

Between 1991 and 2009, 34 ILPs were performed in patients with irresectable STS of the wrist, hand, ankle, or foot. Disease was unifocal in 21 (62%) patients.

RESULTS

Overall response rate was 71% (n = 24). After a median follow-up of 34 (range 1-143) months the local recurrence rate was 32%. Amputation was unavoidable in four patients (13%), four other patients (13%) underwent a partial amputation of the hand or foot.

CONCLUSION

With a limb salvage rate of 87%, TM-ILP is an effective treatment modality in patients with distal STS. In all patients with an indication for amputation surgery due to an STS in the distal part of the limb, TM-ILP should be considered.

Case series. Soft-tissue sarcoma of the foot

BACKGROUND

We reviewed cases of soft-tissue sarcoma of the foot to gain insight into the presentation, treatments and outcomes for this rare disease and to determine whether limb-salvage surgery yields reasonable functional and oncological outcomes.

METHODS

We reviewed the cases of 16 patients treated by 2 of us (R.T. and M.I.) for soft-tissue sarcoma of the foot over a 15-year period. We extracted the following information from each patient's medical record: disease status at presentation, prior treatment, histological diagnosis, American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) stage, details of treatment, oncological outcome and functional outcome. Functional outcome was assessed with the Toronto Extremity Salvage Score (TESS) and the Musculoskeletal Tumor Society (MSTS 1987).

RESULTS

Follow-up averaged 6 (range 2–15) years. Eight patients presented after unplanned excision. Histological diagnosis was synovial sarcoma for 7 of 16 patients.The tumours were evenly distributed among the hindfoot, midfoot and forefoot. Most patients (n = 13) presented with AJCC stage II or III disease. Amputation was necessary for 3 patients, whereas limb salvage was possible for the other 13. Free tissue transfer (n = 9) and radiation therapy (n = 12) were used in most cases. Surgical margins were microscopically positive in 4 of the 13 patients treated with limb salvage.Local disease recurred in 2 patients. Lung metastases occurred in 4 patients. At last follow-up, 11 of 16 patients were alive without disease, 2 with disease and 3 had died of their disease. Functional assessment with MSTS 1987 and the TESS averaged 28%and 90%, respectively, after limb salvage.

CONCLUSION

In this series, we found that, first, patients frequently presented after unplanned excision, and this may have led to worse oncological outcomes compared with patients who presented primarily. Second, limb salvage was usually possible, but it required accepting marginal resections, relying on free tissue transfer to obtain coverage and using radiation therapy to obtain local control. Third, this combination yielded an acceptable local control rate and very good functional outcomes.

Limb salvage for soft-tissue sarcomas of the foot and ankle

We evaluated the oncological and functional outcome of 27 patients who had limb salvage for a soft-tissue sarcoma of the foot or ankle between 1992 and 2007, with a mean follow-up of 7.5 years (1.05 to 16.2). There were 12 men and 15 women, with a mean age at presentation of 47 years (12 to 84). Referrals came from other hospitals for 16 patients who had previous biopsy or unplanned excision, and 11 presented de novo. There were 18 tumours located in the foot and nine around the ankle. Synovial sarcoma was the most frequent histological diagnosis. Excision was performed in all cases, with 16 patients requiring plastic surgical reconstruction with 13 free and three local flaps. Adjuvant treatment was undertaken in 20 patients, 18 with radiotherapy and two by chemotherapy. Limb salvage was successful in 26 of the 27 patients. There have been two local recurrences and two mesenchymal metastases. Four patients have died of their sarcoma and two of other causes.

Function was evaluated with the Toronto Extremity Salvage Score and a mean overall score of 89.40 (52.1 to 100) was obtained. A questionnaire revealed that all surviving patients are able to wear normal shoes and none require a walking aid.

Limb salvage can achieve good oncological and functional results with additional treatment.

Function and health status outcomes following soft tissue reconstruction for limb preservation in extremity soft tissue sarcoma

BACKGROUND

While advances in reconstructive surgery have facilitated limb preservation in extremity soft tissue sarcoma (ESTS), limited information exists as to the functional outcome of patients with these reconstructed extremities. The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the impact of flap reconstruction on postoperative function and health status in patients undergoing limb-salvage surgery for ESTS.

METHODS

Clinical and outcome data for eligible patients were extracted from a prospectively maintained database of sarcoma patients. Four outcome measures were used to assess three domains of function (impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions), and health status. The effect of soft tissue reconstruction on function and health status at 1-2-year follow-up was analyzed using univariate and multivariate regression.

RESULTS

Two hundred and forty-seven patients met eligibility criteria, including 56 patients receiving flap reconstruction and 191 patients treated with primary closure. Patients receiving flaps had larger (9.8 versus 7.1 cm; P = 0.003), higher-grade (93% versus 72%; P = 0.001) tumors, and more frequently received radiotherapy (89% versus 72%; P = 0.007), and bone (20% versus 4%; P = 0.001) and motor nerve resection (21% versus 10%; P = 0.032). Flap reconstruction was associated with more postoperative impairments [Musculoskeletal Tumor Society (MSTS) score 30.4 versus 32.2; P = 0.004] and activity limitations [Toronto Extremity Salvage Score (TESS) score 83.3 versus 89.5; P = 0.0132] on univariate analyses, but did not significantly predict postoperative function or health status outcomes on multivariate analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

Flap reconstruction was not an independent predictor of function and health status outcomes in patients with ESTS. However, ESTS patients receiving flaps had other clinical features placing them at risk for worse postoperative outcomes.

Bone invasion in extremity soft-tissue sarcoma

BACKGROUND

The purpose of the current study was to evaluate histologic bone invasion as a predictor of oncologic outcome in extremity soft-tissue sarcoma (STS) patients presenting to a specialty sarcoma center between 1986 and 2001.

METHODS

All patients who underwent surgery for extremity STS were identified from the prospective database at the study institution. Patient demographic features were compared using chi-square analyses or independent-sample Student t-tests. The disease outcomes were compared for those with and without bone invasion using Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and Cox modeling.

RESULTS

In a review of 874 patients with STS of the extremity, 48 patients (5.5%) had evidence of bone invasion. Patients with bone invasion presented with larger tumors that were more frequently deep in the extremity and more often had metastases at presentation. Patients with bone invasion had lower metastasis-free survival but bone invasion was not found to be an independent prognostic factor (P = .274) on Cox modeling. Bone invasion was found to be prognostic of overall survival on multivariate analysis (P < .0001).

CONCLUSIONS

In a small percentage of patients with STS, bone resection may be required to obtain an adequate surgical margin, thereby limiting the risk of local tumor recurrence. Histologic bone invasion portends a poorer prognosis in terms of overall survival.

Rehabilitation and quality-of-life issues in patients with extremity soft tissue sarcoma

The current standard of care for soft tissue sarcoma (STS) is limb salvage surgery and adjuvant radiotherapy, with long-term survival rates of approximately 70%. However, the extensive surgical resection and subsequent reconstruction result in 50% of survivors living with chronic disability. Rehabilitation aims to optimize functional independence and quality of life, and is routinely offered to patients undergoing surgical treatment for STS. Unfortunately, there is a dearth of research related to rehabilitation in this area. We propose a model for assessing disability, for designing treatment interventions and for evaluating rehabilitative outcomes in STS. The World Health Organization's (WHO) international classification of functioning, disability, and health (ICF) is divided into three domains: 1) impairments (related to body structure and function), 2) activity limitations (related to usual self-care activities/activities of daily living), and 3) participation restrictions (related to social roles). A literature review of STS rehabilitation reveals that most studies have focused on disability assessment, with few papers describing or evaluating rehabilitation interventions commonly employed in STS. Clinicians are forced to extrapolate findings from other patient populations in order to evaluate the effectiveness of specific rehabilitation strategies (ie, those used for particular sequelae of STS, such as lymphedema or impaired exercise tolerance). There is strongest support for complex decongestive physiotherapy (targeting lymphedema) and aerobic exercise interventions (aimed at alleviating cancer-related fatigue and psychosocial sequelae). The most poorly researched topic is rehabilitation for genitourinary disability (both incontinence and sexual dysfunction). Most studies related to oncologic rehabilitation are restricted to the impairment level (eg, affecting range of motion, muscle strength) of the ICF, with only a small minority addressing activity limitations (eg, affecting activities of daily living) experienced by patients. A consideration of participation restrictions (eg, fulfillment of vocational roles) is almost wholly absent from the literature. Yet social role reintegration is of fundamental importance to patients. Further research is required in these two domains. The ICF provides a comprehensive framework for future research into rehabilitation interventions for STS.

Amputation for recurrent soft tissue sarcoma of the extremity: indications and outcome

BACKGROUND

Limb salvage after primary site failure of extremity soft tissue sarcoma is a challenging problem. Amputation may be the most effective treatment option in selected patients with local recurrence. We compared the outcome of patients treated with amputation versus limb-sparing surgery (LSS) for locally recurrent extremity sarcoma.

METHODS

From 1982 to 2000, 1178 patients with localized primary extremity sarcoma underwent LSS. Of these, 204 (17%) developed local recurrence. Eighteen (9%) required major amputation and the remainder underwent LSS, of which 34 were selected for matched-pair analysis according to established prognostic variables. Rates of recurrence or death were estimated by the Kaplan-Meier method. Following adjustment for prognostic variables, a Mantel-Haenszel test was used to compare the outcome between the two treatment groups.

RESULTS

Patients in each group were well matched. All patients had high-grade tumors deep to the fascia. Median time to local recurrence was similar for both groups. Median follow-up was 95 months. Amputation was associated with a significant improvement in local control of disease (94% vs. 74%; P = .04). We observed no difference in disease-free (P = .48), disease-specific (P = .74), or overall survival (P = .93) between the two groups. Median postrecurrence survival was 20 months and 5-year OS was 36% for the entire study group.

CONCLUSIONS

Limb-sparing treatment achieves local control in the majority of recurrent extremity sarcomas for which amputation is infrequently indicated. Amputation improves local disease control but not survival under these circumstances.

The local management of soft tissue sarcoma

Soft tissue sarcomas (STS) are rare tumors arising from the connective tissues. STS can arise at any anatomic site, can demonstrate varied behavior and prognosis, and therefore present a formidable challenge in management. The local treatment of STS demands technical complexity in the application of diagnostic tools, including pathology and imaging, as well as treatment approaches, including surgical ablation and reconstruction, radiotherapy, and, in defined cases, chemotherapy. The understanding of the management of these lesions is profoundly dependent on the multidisciplinary setting, where experience has been gained and skills are available to increase the likelihood of a successful result. Several proven options are available for optimal local management, and the choice of approach depends on the prevailing practice and resource profile of the treating center. With modern approaches, the local control rate can be expected to be at least 90% for extremity lesions, which constitute the most common STS. The experience in other anatomic sites is less favorable as a result of a combination of late diagnosis, technically difficult access sites, and possibly less familiarity with these less common presentations. The disappointing results make it all the more important for patients to be referred to a multidisciplinary setting with experience in sarcoma management to maximize the chance of successful local outcome.

Approaches to local salvage of soft tissue sarcoma after primary site failure

Improvements in pretreatment evaluation and the wider application of specialized multidisciplinary care have substantially reduced the risk of local recurrence for patients with soft tissue sarcomas arising at any site, and the recurrences that are still seen are often those that are most difficult to manage effectively. The management strategy for an isolated local recurrence of soft tissue sarcoma is usually similar to that used for primary disease. With appropriate pretreatment evaluation and salvage therapy that includes a multidisciplinary approach, most patients with local recurrence can expect local disease control and a good functional outcome. The development of effective management of a local recurrence is often a complex problem. The necessary decisions are influenced by the tumor location, disease extent, and previous local therapy. The need for specialized care is stressed. Patient evaluation, management strategies, and expected outcome for various clinical scenarios are discussed.

Functional outcome in extremity soft tissue sarcoma

The studies reporting functional outcome for patients undergoing limb preservation surgery for extremity soft tissue sarcoma (STS) have evaluated mainly impairments, that is, deficits at an anatomic structure level, such as joint range of motion and strength. Disability, activities of daily living, self-care, and mobility have been less frequently evaluated. Review of the literature suggests that approximately 50% of patients treated for STS have significant impairments, whereas the frequency of disability is less. Synthesis of the results is difficult because of the heterogeneity of patient samples, treatment, and the outcomes used to evaluate function. Future studies require the use of standardized definitions and reliable and valid functional outcome measures. Improved patient outcomes can be achieved only by understanding the determinants of these outcomes and by introducing interventions to improve patient functional outcome.