1
|
Vite-Garín T, Estrada-Cruz NA, Hernández-Castro R, Fuentes-Venado CE, Zarate-Segura PB, Frías-De-León MG, Martínez-Castillo M, Martínez-Herrera E, Pinto-Almazán R. Remarkable Phenotypic Virulence Factors of Microsporum canis and Their Associated Genes: A Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2533. [PMID: 38473782 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Microsporum canis is a widely distributed dermatophyte, which is among the main etiological agents of dermatophytosis in humans and domestic animals. This fungus invades, colonizes and nourishes itself on the keratinized tissues of the host through various virulence factors. This review will bring together the known information about the mechanisms, enzymes and their associated genes relevant to the pathogenesis processes of the fungus and will provide an overview of those virulence factors that should be better studied to establish effective methods of prevention and control of the disease. Public databases using the MeSH terms "Microsporum canis", "virulence factors" and each individual virulence factor were reviewed to enlist a series of articles, from where only original works in English and Spanish that included relevant information on the subject were selected. Out of the 147 articles obtained in the review, 46 were selected that reported virulence factors for M. canis in a period between 1988 and 2023. The rest of the articles were discarded because they did not contain information on the topic (67), some were written in different languages (3), and others were repeated in two or more databases (24) or were not original articles (7). The main virulence factors in M. canis are keratinases, fungilisins and subtilisins. However, less commonly reported are biofilms or dipeptidylpeptidases, among others, which have been little researched because they vary in expression or activity between strains and are not considered essential for the infection and survival of the fungus. Although it is known that they are truly involved in resistance, infection and metabolism, we recognize that their study could strengthen the knowledge of the pathogenesis of M. canis with the aim of achieving effective treatments, as well as the prevention and control of infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tania Vite-Garín
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón s/n, Col. Casco de Santo Tomas, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico
- Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Investigación Científica, C.U., Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
| | - Norma Angélica Estrada-Cruz
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón s/n, Col. Casco de Santo Tomas, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico
| | - Rigoberto Hernández-Castro
- Departamento de Ecología de Agentes Patógenos, Hospital General "Dr. Manuel Gea González", Ciudad de México 14080, Mexico
| | - Claudia Erika Fuentes-Venado
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón s/n, Col. Casco de Santo Tomas, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico
- Servicio de Medicina Física y Rehabilitación, Hospital General de Zona No 197, Texcoco 56108, Mexico
| | - Paola Berenice Zarate-Segura
- Laboratorio de Medicina Traslacional, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico
| | - María Guadalupe Frías-De-León
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica, Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad de Ixtapaluca, Pueblo de Zoquiapan, Ixtapaluca 56530, Mexico
| | - Macario Martínez-Castillo
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón s/n, Col. Casco de Santo Tomas, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico
| | - Erick Martínez-Herrera
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón s/n, Col. Casco de Santo Tomas, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico
- Fundación Vithas, Grupo Hospitalario Vithas, 28043 Madrid, Spain
- Efficiency, Quality, and Costsin Health Services Research Group (EFISALUD), Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IISGS), Servizo Galego de Saúde-Universidade de Vigo (UVIGO), 36213 Vigo, Spain
| | - Rodolfo Pinto-Almazán
- Sección de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón s/n, Col. Casco de Santo Tomas, Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico
- Fundación Vithas, Grupo Hospitalario Vithas, 28043 Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Deng R, Wang X, Li R. Dermatophyte infection: from fungal pathogenicity to host immune responses. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1285887. [PMID: 38022599 PMCID: PMC10652793 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1285887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytosis is a common superficial infection caused by dermatophytes, a group of pathogenic keratinophilic fungi. Apart from invasion against skin barrier, host immune responses to dermatophytes could also lead to pathologic inflammation and tissue damage to some extent. Therefore, it is of great help to understand the pathogenesis of dermatophytes, including fungal virulence factors and anti-pathogen immune responses. This review aims to summarize the recent advances in host-fungal interactions, focusing on the mechanisms of anti-fungal immunity and the relationship between immune deficiency and chronic dermatophytosis, in order to facilitate novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to improve the outcomes of these patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruixin Deng
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
- Research Center for Medical Mycology, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Skin and Immune Diseases, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis on Dermatoses, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaowen Wang
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
- Research Center for Medical Mycology, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Skin and Immune Diseases, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis on Dermatoses, Beijing, China
| | - Ruoyu Li
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
- Research Center for Medical Mycology, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Skin and Immune Diseases, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis on Dermatoses, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Satala D, Bras G, Kozik A, Rapala-Kozik M, Karkowska-Kuleta J. More than Just Protein Degradation: The Regulatory Roles and Moonlighting Functions of Extracellular Proteases Produced by Fungi Pathogenic for Humans. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9010121. [PMID: 36675942 PMCID: PMC9865821 DOI: 10.3390/jof9010121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular proteases belong to the main virulence factors of pathogenic fungi. Their proteolytic activities plays a crucial role in the acquisition of nutrients from the external environment, destroying host barriers and defenses, and disrupting homeostasis in the human body, e.g., by affecting the functions of plasma proteolytic cascades, and playing sophisticated regulatory roles in various processes. Interestingly, some proteases belong to the group of moonlighting proteins, i.e., they have additional functions that contribute to successful host colonization and infection development, but they are not directly related to proteolysis. In this review, we describe examples of such multitasking of extracellular proteases that have been reported for medically important pathogenic fungi of the Candida, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cryptococcus, Rhizopus, and Pneumocystis genera, as well as dermatophytes and selected endemic species. Additional functions of proteinases include supporting binding to host proteins, and adhesion to host cells. They also mediate self-aggregation and biofilm formation. In addition, fungal proteases affect the host immune cells and allergenicity, understood as the ability to stimulate a non-standard immune response. Finally, they play a role in the proper maintenance of cellular homeostasis. Knowledge about the multifunctionality of proteases, in addition to their canonical roles, greatly contributes to an understanding of the mechanisms of fungal pathogenicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dorota Satala
- Department of Comparative Biochemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Kraków, Poland
| | - Grazyna Bras
- Department of Comparative Biochemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Kraków, Poland
| | - Andrzej Kozik
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Kraków, Poland
| | - Maria Rapala-Kozik
- Department of Comparative Biochemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Kraków, Poland
| | - Justyna Karkowska-Kuleta
- Department of Comparative Biochemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Kraków, Poland
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Abo-Elyazeed H, Soliman R, Hassan H, El-Seedy FR, Aboul-Ella H. Development, preparation, and evaluation of a novel non-adjuvanted polyvalent dermatophytes vaccine. Sci Rep 2023; 13:157. [PMID: 36599863 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-26567-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Ringworm is a worldwide distributed contagious disease infecting both man and animals that constitute an economic, zoonotic, and health problem concern all over the world. During the last decade, attention has been directed to vaccination as an ideal approach to the control of such diseases. In the present study, non-adjuvanted polyvalent vaccines were prepared from locally isolated hot and virulent dermatophyte species, namely Trichophyton verrucosum (T. verrucosum), Trichophyton mentagrophytes (T. mentagrophytes), and Microsporum canis (M. canis) were immunologically evaluated. The prepared vaccine evaluation was focused on the aspects of immunogenicity and protective efficacy using guinea pigs. Both in its living or inactivated forms, the vaccine-induced significant humoral and cell-mediated immune responses and achieve proper protection of guinea pigs against challenging infections with homologous and heterologous dermatophyte strains. On the other hand, investigations on dermatophyte exo-keratinases showed that it was better produced and more expressed in a mineral-based medium containing pure keratin (3 g/L) than in the same medium with human hair supplementation (2.6 g/L). The maximum dermatophyte productivity of exo-keratinases was found to be between 18 and 21 days post-incubation. Using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), two fractions with molecular weights of 40 kDa (fraction I) and 28 kDa (fraction II) have been identified in the culture filtrate of the three involved dermatophyte species. Both fractions demonstrated keratinolytic activity. The specific activity of the isolated keratinases (number of Keratinase units (KU)/mg protein) was stronger in fraction I, where it reached 18.75, 15.38, and 14 KU/mg protein as compared to 12.9, 8.74, and 12 KU/mg protein in fraction II of T. verrucosum, T. mentagrophytes, and M. canis, respectively. The dermatophyte exo-keratinases proved to be immunogenic as they stimulated high keratinase-specific antibody titers and induced strong delayed skin hypersensitivity reactions in vaccinated animals. Anti-keratinase-specific IgG was detected in sera of guinea pigs immunized with the inactivated or living polyvalent dermatophyte vaccines by a homemade enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using dermatophyte exo-keratinases as coating antigen. The intradermal injection of dermatophyte exo-keratinases induced specific delayed skin reactions in guinea pigs immunized with the inactivated or the living polyvalent dermatophyte vaccines. The intradermal injection of dermatophyte exo-keratinases in the control non-sensitized guinea pigs was associated with itching, swelling, and bloody scar formation, however, no skin indurations were formed. The development of those post-exo-keratinases injection reactions in the control non-sensitized apparently healthy guinea pigs group, suggests an exo-keratinases possible role in the pathogenesis of dermatophytosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heidy Abo-Elyazeed
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - R Soliman
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - H Hassan
- Animal Health Research Institute, Giza, Egypt
| | - F R El-Seedy
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Hassan Aboul-Ella
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Salahi Z, Yadegari MH, Bagheri M, Khani MH, Zahmatkesh A, Khaki P. The effect of cytoplasmic crude extracts of Trichophyton verrucosum on cell mediated immunity. J Mycol Med 2020; 30:100969. [PMID: 32334947 DOI: 10.1016/j.mycmed.2020.100969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Trichophyton verrucosum is a slow growing dermatophyte responsible for a number of skin diseases such as ringworm, and is characterized by patches of hair loss and thick crusts on the host skin in domestic animals. In this study, we examined the immunomodulatory effects of crude extract of Trichophyton verrucosum (TV)cytoplasm in a mouse model. METHODS The TV variate was cultured on Sabouraud dextrose agar and the mycelium was grinded by mechanical force. The purified protein was obtained from crude extract of the fungus, and protein concentration was measured by BradFord assay. Six to eight week-female BALB/c mice were divided into three groups: test group, receiving cytoplasmic crude extract plus defibrinated sheep blood; control group, receiving defibrinated sheep blood; and normal group, receiving normal saline. Injections were performed on days 0, 3, 5, 7 and 9 and the mice were sacrificed four days after the last injection. T lymphocyte metabolic activity was examined by methyl thiazol tetrazolium (MTT) assay, and also interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interferon-γ (IFNγ) levels were evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS MTT assay showed that the TV extract stimulated lymphocyte metabolic activity. ELISA results showed that despite increase in the level of IFNγ, no changes were observed in IL-4 level. CONCLUSIONS Results indicated that crude extract of TV cytoplasm may probably act as an immune modulator, which affects Th1 responses. The TV crude extract may be an appropriate agent to induce cellular immunity for combating dermatophytosis infection in animals; and therefore, TV extract may have some potential applications in vaccine/adjuvant technology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Z Salahi
- Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute (RVSRI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran
| | - M-H Yadegari
- Department of Medical Mycology, Faculty of Medical Science, Tarbiat Modaress University, Tehran, Iran
| | - M Bagheri
- Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute (RVSRI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran.
| | - M-H Khani
- Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute (RVSRI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran
| | - A Zahmatkesh
- Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute (RVSRI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran
| | - P Khaki
- Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute (RVSRI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Faway E, Cambier L, De Vuyst E, Evrard C, Thiry M, Lambert de Rouvroit C, Mignon B, Poumay Y. Responses of Reconstructed Human Epidermis to Trichophyton rubrum Infection and Impairment of Infection by the Inhibitor PD169316. J Invest Dermatol 2019; 139:2080-2089.e6. [PMID: 30986374 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2019.03.1147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Despite the threatening incidence of dermatophytosis, information is still lacking about the consequences of infection on epidermal barrier functions and about the keratinocyte responses that alert immune components. To identify the mechanisms involved, arthroconidia of the anthropophilic dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum were prepared to infect reconstructed human epidermis (RHE) in vitro. Integrity of the barrier was monitored during infection by measurements of transepithelial electrical resistance and dye-permeation through the RHE. Expression and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and antimicrobial peptides by keratinocytes inserted into the RHE were assessed, respectively, by quantitative reverse transcriptase-PCR (to analyze mRNA content in tissue extracts) and by ELISA (to detect proteins in culture media). Results reveal that infection by T. rubrum is responsible for disruption of the epidermal barrier, including loss of functional tight junctions. It additionally causes simultaneous expression and release of cytokines and antimicrobial peptides by keratinocytes. Potential involvement of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway was evaluated during infection by targeted inhibition of its activity. Intriguingly, among several p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitors, PD169316 alone was able to inhibit growth of T. rubrum on Sabouraud agar and to suppress the process of infection on RHE. This suggests that PD169316 acts on a specific target in dermatophytes themselves.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Faway
- URPHYM-NARILIS, University of Namur, Namur, Belgium
| | - Ludivine Cambier
- FARAH, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | | | | | - Marc Thiry
- Cell and Tissue Biology Unit, GIGA-Neurosciences, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | | | - Bernard Mignon
- FARAH, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Yves Poumay
- URPHYM-NARILIS, University of Namur, Namur, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Aruna GL, Ramalingappa B. Development and evaluation of indirect enzyme linked immunosorbent assay for the serological diagnosis of Microsporum canis infection in humans. J Mycol Med 2018; 28:285-288. [PMID: 29482975 DOI: 10.1016/j.mycmed.2018.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2017] [Revised: 01/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/20/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate the diagnostic potential of indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (I-ELISA) for the rapid and precise diagnosis of Microsporum canis infection in humans. BASIC PROCEDURES The present study reports the production, partial purification and SDS-PAGE analysis of M. canis mycelial antigens and production of specific polyclonal antibodies. It also reports the development and optimization of indirect ELISA and evaluation of its potential for the diagnosis of M. canis infection in humans. MAIN FINDINGS An I-ELISA showed the sensitivity of 94.55% and specificity of 93.33%. Positive and negative predictive values were 96.30% and 90.32% respectively. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis of the data showed higher diagnostic accuracy. The area under the curve (AUC) was 0.925. A significant correlation coefficient of 0.8771 (P<0.0001) was obtained between I-ELISA and fungal culture method. PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, the present study clearly shows the detection of specific antibodies by indirect ELISA using M. canis antigens. The assay is sensitive, specific and easy to perform, could enable rapid and more convenient diagnosis of dermatophytosis in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G L Aruna
- Department of microbiology, Government Science College, 577501 Chitradurga, Karnataka, India
| | - B Ramalingappa
- Department of studies and research in microbiology, Davangere University, 577002 Davangere, Karnataka, India.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhang X, Dai P, Gao Y, Gong X, Cui H, Jin Y, Zhang Y. Transcriptome sequencing and analysis of zinc-uptake-related genes in Trichophyton mentagrophytes. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:888. [PMID: 29157209 PMCID: PMC5697147 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-4284-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Trichophyton mentagrophytes is an important zoonotic dermatophytic (ringworm) pathogen; causing severe skin infection in humans and other animals worldwide. Fortunately, commonly used fungal skin disease prevention and treatment measures are relatively simple. However, T. mentagrophytes is primarily studied at the epidemiology and drug efficacy research levels, yet current study has been unable to meet the needs of clinical medicine. Zinc is a crucial trace element for the growth and reproduction of fungi and other microorganisms. The metal ions coordinate within a variety of proteins to form zinc finger proteins, which perform many vital biological functions. Zinc transport regulatory networks have not been resolved in T. mentagrophytes. The T. mentagrophytes transcriptome will allow us to discover new genes, particularly those genes involved in zinc uptake. Result We found T. mentagrophytes growth to be restricted by zinc deficiency; natural T. mentagrophytes growth requires zinc ions. T. Mentagrophytes must acquire zinc ions for growth and development. The transcriptome of T. mentagrophytes was sequenced by using Illumina HiSeq™ 2000 technology and the de novo assembly of the transcriptome was performed by using the Trinity method, and functional annotation was analyzed. We got 10,751 unigenes. The growth of T. mentagrophytes is severely inhibited and there were many genes showing significant up regulation and down regulation respectively in T. mentagrophytes when zinc deficiency. Zinc deficiency can affect the expression of multiple genes of T. mentagrophytes. The effect of the zinc deficiency could be recovered in the normal medium. And we finally found the zinc-responsive activating factor (ZafA) and speculated that 4 unigenes are zinc transporters. We knocked ZafA gene by ATMT transformation in T. mentagrophytes, the result showed that ZafA gene is very important for the growth and the generation of conidia in T. mentagrophytes. The expression of 4 zinc transporter genes is potentially regulated by the zinc-responsive activating factor. The data of this study is also sufficient to be used as a support to study T. mentagrophytes. Conclusion We reported the first large transcriptome study carried out in T. mentagrophytes where we have compared physiological and transcriptional responses to zinc deficiency, and analyzed the expression of genes involved in zinc uptake. The study also produced high-resolution digital profiles of global genes expression relating to T. mentagrophytes growth. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-017-4284-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xinke Zhang
- The College of Veterinary Medicine of the Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, No. 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Pengxiu Dai
- The College of Veterinary Medicine of the Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, No. 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Yongping Gao
- The College of Veterinary Medicine of the Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, No. 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaowen Gong
- The College of Veterinary Medicine of the Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, No. 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Hao Cui
- The College of Veterinary Medicine of the Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, No. 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Yipeng Jin
- Clinical Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yihua Zhang
- The College of Veterinary Medicine of the Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, No. 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Shi Y, Niu Q, Yu X, Jia X, Wang J, Lin D, Jin Y. Assessment of the function ofSUB6in the pathogenic dermatophyteTrichophyton mentagrophytes. Med Mycol 2015; 54:59-71. [DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myv071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
|
10
|
Cambier L, Weatherspoon A, Defaweux V, Bagut ET, Heinen MP, Antoine N, Mignon B. Assessment of the cutaneous immune response during Arthroderma benhamiae and A. vanbreuseghemii infection using an experimental mouse model. Br J Dermatol 2014; 170:625-33. [PMID: 24116688 DOI: 10.1111/bjd.12673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/03/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dermatophytoses are common but poorly understood skin infections. Most in vivo studies have been performed using the guinea pig as the experimental animal model, which has several limitations. OBJECTIVES To develop a mouse model of dermatophytosis suitable for multiple purposes, including the investigation of immunity against dermatophytes. MATERIALS AND METHODS Two peculiar fungal species, Arthroderma benhamiae and A. vanbreuseghemii, isolated from tinea in humans having contact with rodents were used for epicutaneous inoculation. During the infection, clinical and histopathological follow-up were performed. The recruitment of immune cells was evaluated by immunofluorescence staining and the levels of cytokine mRNA were quantified by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction in the skin of infected mice. RESULTS The skin symptoms and microscopic lesions, including the colonization of keratinized epidermal and follicular structures by both dermatophytes, were highly similar to those observed in guinea pig infection models and in natural infections, mimicking acute superficial tinea in humans. The dermal inflammatory cellular infiltrate consisted of macrophages, dendritic cells and especially polymorphonuclear neutrophils, which are one of the histological 'clues' to the diagnosis of dermatophytosis. The in situ cytokine profile was characterized by the overexpression of transforming growth factor-β, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 mRNA during infection, suggesting a role of the T-helper 17 pathway in the establishment of immunity. CONCLUSIONS Our new reproducible and validated mouse model of dermatophytosis is a modern in vivo tool that allows a more in-depth understanding of the pathogenesis of human dermatophyte infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Cambier
- Veterinary Mycology Laboratory, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, B-43 Sart Tilman, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Criado PR, Oliveira CBD, Dantas KC, Takiguti FA, Benini LV, Vasconcellos C. Micoses superficiais e os elementos da resposta imune. An Bras Dermatol 2011; 86:726-31. [DOI: 10.1590/s0365-05962011000400015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2010] [Accepted: 10/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
As micoses superficiais são prevalentes em todo o mundo, geralmente ocasionadas por dermatófitos e restritas à camada córnea. A resposta imunológica do hospedeiro às infecções dos fungos dermatófitos depende basicamente das defesas do hospedeiro a metabólitos do fungo, da virulência da cepa ou da espécie infectante e da localização anatômica da infecção. Serão revistos alguns dos fatores da defesa imunológica do hospedeiro que influenciam na eficácia da resposta imune. Em especial, a participação dos receptores de padrão de reconhecimento (PRRs), tais como os receptores toll-like ou os da família lectina (DC-SIGN e dectin-2), que participam da resposta imune inata, conferindo-lhe especificidade e definindo o padrão da resposta imune como um todo. O predomínio celular ou humoral da resposta imune definirá o quadro clínico e o prognóstico da infecção, levando à cura ou cronicidade
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Cidia Vasconcellos
- IAMSPE; Universidade Cidade de São Paulo; Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Targeted gene deletion and in vivo analysis of putative virulence gene function in the pathogenic dermatophyte Arthroderma benhamiae. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2011; 10:842-53. [PMID: 21478433 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00273-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Dermatophytes cause the majority of superficial mycoses in humans and animals. However, little is known about the pathogenicity of this specialized group of filamentous fungi, for which molecular research has been limited thus far. During experimental infection of guinea pigs by the human pathogenic dermatophyte Arthroderma benhamiae, we recently detected the activation of the fungal gene encoding malate synthase AcuE, a key enzyme of the glyoxylate cycle. By the establishment of the first genetic system for A. benhamiae, specific ΔacuE mutants were constructed in a wild-type strain and, in addition, in a derivative in which we inactivated the nonhomologous end-joining pathway by deletion of the A. benhamiae KU70 gene. The absence of AbenKU70 resulted in an increased frequency of the targeted insertion of linear DNA by homologous recombination, without notably altering the monitored in vitro growth abilities of the fungus or its virulence in a guinea pig infection model. Phenotypic analyses of ΔacuE mutants and complemented strains depicted that malate synthase is required for the growth of A. benhamiae on lipids, major constituents of the skin. However, mutant analysis did not reveal a pathogenic role of the A. benhamiae enzyme in guinea pig dermatophytosis or during epidermal invasion of the fungus in an in vitro model of reconstituted human epidermis. The presented efficient system for targeted genetic manipulation in A. benhamiae, paired with the analyzed infection models, will advance the functional characterization of putative virulence determinants in medically important dermatophytes.
Collapse
|
13
|
Dermatomycosis: Conditions that contribute to the disease development. ZBORNIK MATICE SRPSKE ZA PRIRODNE NAUKE 2011. [DOI: 10.2298/zmspn1120231s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin lesions caused by dermatophytes are classified depending on the infected
skin structure: surface layer of cutis, fur layer, clutches or nails. Surface
mycoses are caused by dermatophytes: Epidermophyton, Microsporum and
Trichophyton species (also important are Malassezia spp., Candida spp., and
Trichosporon). Skin is the target tissue for fungal infections if the
epithelial layer is damaged and immune system cannot cope with the infection,
or if the conditions are favorable for dermatophytes, which spread in the
cutis due to the enzyme activities. Dermatophytes can be found on skin
surface if they contaminate or colonize epidermis or hair follicles. However,
clinical symptoms of lesion on the skin are sometimes absent. According to
the literature data 6-9% of skin lesions are caused by dermatophyte in human
medicine. Similar situation is in veterinary medicine. Fungus that cause
dermatomycosis are widespread in the nature and could be divided into:
zoophilic, geophilic and anthrophilic. The goal of this paper is to present
the latest knowledge in pathogenesis on dermatomycosis, predisposing factors
important for the outcome of the disease, and immunological reaction of
organism to the fungal infection. Our intention is to summarize the subject
and present the facts related to specific problems in dermatomycosis.
Collapse
|
14
|
Abstract
Dermatophytoses are infections caused by keratinophilic fungi known as dermatophytes. Several steps are required for infection to take place: contact, adherence, and invasion of keratin layers. The severity of the infection depends on the type of agent, environmental factors, and the host immunologic status. Tinea versicolor is caused by the Malassezia spp yeasts, which are microorganisms that belong to normal biota in seborrheic areas, but some contributing factors, such as the application of oily preparations, creams, an increase in ambient humidity, corticosteroid abuse, or genetic predisposition can induce its overgrowth in both filamentous and yeast structures. Exposure to sunlight stimulates the production of azelaic acid, which causes the appearance of hypopigmented spots. Currently, there is no scientific explanation for hyperpigmented lesions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luis J Mendez-Tovar
- Laboratory of Dermatology and Medical Mycology Research, Specialties Hospital, National Medical Center, IMSS, Apdo postal A-032, Coahuila No 5 Col Roma, 06703, México, DF, México.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Preuett BL, Schuenemann E, Brown JT, Kovac ME, Krishnan SK, Abdel-Rahman SM. Comparative analysis of secreted enzymes between the anthropophilic-zoophilic sister species Trichophyton tonsurans and Trichophyton equinum. Fungal Biol 2010; 114:429-37. [PMID: 20943153 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2010.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2009] [Revised: 02/26/2010] [Accepted: 03/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Trichophyton tonsurans (TT) and Trichophyton equinum (TE) are two closely related dermatophytes with very different host preferences. This study was designed to examine the genetic and transcript level variations of secreted enzymes between TT and TE. Thirty-one genes representing 10 gene families were selected for comparison and complete genomic and cDNA sequences were elucidated. Sequence analyses of the selected genes identified 104 polymorphisms between the two dermatophytes, 37 of which are expected to encode changes in their polypeptide sequence. Quantitative RT-PCR was used to examine the differences in levels of transcript between TT and TE grown over 14d in aqueous keratin medium. Differences in transcript expression between TT and TE were gene specific and ranged from 1.1-fold to 33-fold. Intra-specific variability across all genes ranged from 41% to 250%. Despite their overall genetic similarity, TT and TE exhibit a moderate degree of variability in the genomic make-up of their secreted enzymes and the extent to which they are transcribed when grown in an aqueous keratin medium. Such differences may contribute to how these genetically similar organisms have adapted to infect divergent host organisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Barry L Preuett
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Medical Toxicology, The Children's Mercy Hospitals and Clinics, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Baldo A, Mathy A, Tabart J, Camponova P, Vermout S, Massart L, Maréchal F, Galleni M, Mignon B. Secreted subtilisin Sub3 from Microsporum canis
is required for adherence to but not for invasion of the epidermis. Br J Dermatol 2009; 162:990-7. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2009.09608.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
|
17
|
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Despite the availability of effective vaccines for certain animal species, vaccination against dermatophytosis requires improvement and further development in both animals and humans. This review provides an update on the current situation and focuses on recent advances in host-dermatophyte relationships that could have implications for future vaccination against the most prevalent of the fungal diseases. RECENT FINDINGS Numerous dermatophytic virulence factors have recently been isolated and characterized at the molecular level, notably secreted proteases involved in the invasion of the keratin network. Their precise roles in the different steps of the infectious process and in immunopathogenesis are being studied, while all aspects of the host immune response against dermatophytes, including the innate response, are becoming increasingly documented. In addition, new molecular tools are now available for studying dermatophytes, which will accelerate research on this topic. SUMMARY The growth of knowledge concerning all aspects of the host-dermatophyte relationship should contribute towards sound strategies for the development of effective and safe vaccines against dermatophytosis.
Collapse
|
18
|
Vermout S, Tabart J, Baldo A, Mathy A, Losson B, Mignon B. Pathogenesis of dermatophytosis. Mycopathologia 2008; 166:267-75. [PMID: 18478361 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-008-9104-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2007] [Revised: 01/15/2008] [Accepted: 01/30/2008] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Despite the superficial localization of most dermatophytosis, host-fungus relationship in these infections is complex and still poorly elucidated. Though many efforts have been accomplished to characterize secreted dermatophytic proteases at the molecular level, only punctual insights have been afforded into other aspects of the pathogenesis of dermatophytosis, such as fungal adhesion, regulation of gene expression during the infection process, and immunomodulation by fungal factors. However, new genetic tools were recently developed, allowing a more rapid and high-throughput functional investigation of dermatophyte genes and the identification of new putative virulence factors. In addition, sophisticated in vitro infection models are now used and will open the way to a more comprehensive view of the interactions between these fungi and host epidermal cells, especially keratinocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandy Vermout
- Department of Infectious & Parasitic Diseases, Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Boulevard de Colonster, 20, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Monod M. Secreted proteases from dermatophytes. Mycopathologia 2008; 166:285-94. [PMID: 18478360 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-008-9105-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2007] [Revised: 01/15/2008] [Accepted: 01/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Dermatophytes are highly specialized pathogenic fungi that exclusively infect the stratum corneum, nails or hair, and it is evident that secreted proteolytic activity is important for their virulence. Endo- and exoproteases-secreted by dermatophytes are similar to those of species of the genus Aspergillus. However, in contrast to Aspergillus spp., dermatophyte-secreted endoproteases are multiple and are members of two large protein families, the subtilisins (serine proteases) and the fungalysins (metalloproteases). In addition, dermatophytes excrete sulphite as a reducing agent. In the presence of sulphite, disulphide bounds of the keratin substrate are directly cleaved to cysteine and S-sulphocysteine, and reduced proteins become accessible for further digestion by various endo- and exoproteases secreted by the fungi. Sulphitolysis is likely to be an essential step in the digestion of compact keratinized tissues which precedes the action of all proteases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michel Monod
- Service de Dermatologie et Vénéréologie, Laboratoire de Mycologie, BT422, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Lund A, Deboer DJ. Immunoprophylaxis of dermatophytosis in animals. Mycopathologia 2008; 166:407-24. [PMID: 18478355 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-008-9111-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2007] [Revised: 01/15/2008] [Accepted: 01/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Dermatophytosis is a relatively common disease in many countries occurring endemically both in companion and food animals. Fungi belonging to the genera Trichophyton and Microsporum are most often isolated from clinical cases. Measures to control and prevent dermatophytosis include sanitation, hygienic measures and treatment. In some countries, successful control and eradication have been achieved by mass vaccination of cattle and fur-bearing animals. Vaccines containing live attenuated cells of the fungus stimulate a cell-mediated immune response conferring long-lasting protection against subsequent challenge by the homologous fungus. A delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) skin test using appropriate dermatophyte antigens is suitable to assess the response. Inactivated dermatophyte vaccines are available for use in cattle, horse, dog, and cat in some countries. However, the scientific literature is scarce making it difficult to conclude on efficacy and appropriate use. Current vaccines are all first generation vaccines. Attempts have been made to prepare subunit vaccines based on new knowledge about virulence factors like the keratinases, so far with limited success. Candidate antigens must be able to stimulate a strong T helper 1 cell response and future research should focus on identification of major T-cell epitopes that specifically elicit a DTH reaction. Dermatophytosis is a zoonotic disease. In Norway and a few other countries, systematic vaccination against cattle ringworm has almost eliminated the disease, and ringworm in man caused by T. verrucosum is almost nonexistent. A similar benefit could be expected if a safe and efficacious vaccine was available for Microsporum canis infection in cats and dogs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arve Lund
- Department of Animal Health, National Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway.
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Vermout SM, Brouta FD, Descamps FF, Losson BJ, Mignon BR. Evaluation of immunogenicity and protective efficacy of a Microsporum canis metalloprotease subunit vaccine in guinea pigs. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 40:75-80. [PMID: 14734190 DOI: 10.1016/s0928-8244(03)00296-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
In order to identify protective immunogens against Microsporum canis infection, a purified recombinant keratinolytic metalloprotease (r-MEP3) was tested as a subunit vaccine in experimentally infected guinea pigs. Both humoral and cellular specific immune responses developing towards r-MEP3 were evaluated, by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and by in vitro lymphocyte transformation tests respectively. Vaccination induced a strong antibody response, and a significant but transient lymphoproliferative response against the protein. However, the protocol failed to prevent fungal invasion or development of dermatophytic lesions. These results show that under the present experimental conditions, r-MEP3 specific antibodies are not protective against a challenge exposure. They also suggest that in the same model, the induction of cell-mediated immunity towards r-MEP3 is not sufficient, indicating the need for further research in the field of specific immune mechanisms involved in M. canis dermatophytosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandy M Vermout
- Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|