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Guo Y, Lee H, Jeong H. Gut microbiota in reductive drug metabolism. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2020; 171:61-93. [PMID: 32475528 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2020.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Gut bacteria are predominant microorganisms in the gut microbiota and have been recognized to mediate a variety of biotransformations of xenobiotic compounds in the gut. This review is focused on one of the gut bacterial xenobiotic metabolisms, reduction. Xenobiotics undergo different types of reductive metabolisms depending on chemically distinct groups: azo (-NN-), nitro (-NO2), alkene (-CC-), ketone (-CO), N-oxide (-NO), and sulfoxide (-SO). In this review, we have provided select examples of drugs in six chemically distinct groups that are known or suspected to be subjected to the reduction by gut bacteria. For some drugs, responsible enzymes in specific gut bacteria have been identified and characterized, but for many drugs, only circumstantial evidence is available that indicates gut bacteria-mediated reductive metabolism. The physiological roles of even known gut bacterial enzymes have not been well defined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukuang Guo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Biomolecular Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Hyunwoo Lee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Biomolecular Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States.
| | - Hyunyoung Jeong
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Biomolecular Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States.
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Wasalathanthri DP, Li D, Song D, Zheng Z, Choudhary D, Jansson I, Lu X, Schenkman JB, Rusling JF. Elucidating Organ-Specific Metabolic Toxicity Chemistry from Electrochemiluminescent Enzyme/DNA Arrays and Bioreactor Bead-LC-MS/MS. Chem Sci 2015; 6:2457-2468. [PMID: 25798217 PMCID: PMC4364445 DOI: 10.1039/c4sc03401e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Combining electrochemiluminescent array and bioreactor bead-LC-MS/MS featuring metabolic enzyme-DNA films provide an efficient, comprehensive approach to simultaneously elucidate metabolic DNA damage chemistries at different human organs for potential new drugs.
Human toxic responses are very often related to metabolism. Liver metabolism is traditionally studied, but other organs also convert chemicals and drugs to reactive metabolites leading to toxicity. When DNA damage is found, the effects are termed genotoxic. Here we describe a comprehensive new approach to evaluate chemical genotoxicity pathways from metabolites formed in situ by a broad spectrum of liver, lung, kidney and intestinal enzymes. DNA damage rates are measured with a microfluidic array featuring a 64-nanowell chip to facilitate fabrication of films of DNA, electrochemiluminescent (ECL) detection polymer [Ru(bpy)2(PVP)10]2+ {(PVP = poly(4-vinylpyridine))} and metabolic enzymes. First, multiple enzyme reactions are run on test compounds using the array, then ECL light related to the resulting DNA damage is measured. A companion method next facilitates reaction of target compounds with DNA/enzyme-coated magnetic beads in 96 well plates, after which DNA is hydrolyzed and nucleobase-metabolite adducts are detected by LC-MS/MS. The same organ enzymes are used as in the arrays. Outcomes revealed nucleobase adducts from DNA damage, enzymes responsible for reactive metabolites (e.g. cyt P450s), influence of bioconjugation, relative dynamics of enzymes suites from different organs, and pathways of possible genotoxic chemistry. Correlations between DNA damage rates from the cell-free array and organ-specific cell-based DNA damage were found. Results illustrate the power of the combined DNA/enzyme microarray/LC-MS/MS approach to efficiently explore a broad spectrum of organ-specific metabolic genotoxic pathways for drugs and environmental chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhanuka P Wasalathanthri
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, United States National University of Ireland at Galway, Ireland
| | - Dandan Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, United States National University of Ireland at Galway, Ireland
| | - Donghui Song
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, United States
| | - Zhifang Zheng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, United States National University of Ireland at Galway, Ireland
| | - Dharamainder Choudhary
- Department of Surgery, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032, United States
| | - Ingela Jansson
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032, United States
| | - Xiuling Lu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, United States
| | - John B Schenkman
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032, United States
| | - James F Rusling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, United States National University of Ireland at Galway, Ireland ; Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032, United States
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LinWu SW, Wu CA, Peng FC, Wang AHJ. Structure-based development of bacterial nitroreductase against nitrobenzodiazepine-induced hypnosis. Biochem Pharmacol 2012; 83:1690-9. [PMID: 22445794 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2012.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2012] [Revised: 03/04/2012] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Nitrobenzodiazepine (NBDZ) is an addictive drug of the abused substances that causes severe neurological effects and even death. Bacterial type I nitroreductase NfsB (EC 1.5.1.34) has been reported to catalyze NBDZ into inactive metabolite 7-amino-benzodiazepine (7ABDZ) with promising activity, so as to become an attractive candidate for treatment of NBDZ overdose and addiction. Here, we investigate the nitroreduction of an NBDZ, flunitrazepam (FZ), by various mutants of NfsB designed from the solved crystal structure and characterize their in vitro and in vivo potency. Conformational changes occurred in the active site of N71S/F124W in contrast to the wild-type, including the flipping on the aromatic rings of W124 and F70 as well as the extension on the hydrogen bond network between flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and S71, which allow the significant enlargement in the active site pocket. In the complex structure of N71S/F124W and nicotinamide (NIA), stacking sandwich attractions of W124-FMN-NIA were also found, implying the importance of W124 in substrate accessibility. Consequently, N71S/F124W exhibited increased 7AFZ production in vitro with nearly no toxicity and reduced 50% sleeping time (hypnosis) in vivo. Taken together, we demonstrate for the first time that N71S/F124W can serve as an effective antidote for NBDZ-induced hypnosis and provide the molecular basis for designing NfsB and the like in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiuan-Woei LinWu
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan
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LinWu SW, Wang AHJ, Peng FC. Flavin-containing reductase: new perspective on the detoxification of nitrobenzodiazepine. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2010; 6:967-81. [DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2010.482928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Linwu SW, Syu CJ, Chen YL, Wang AHJ, Peng FC. Characterization of Escherichia coli nitroreductase NfsB in the metabolism of nitrobenzodiazepines. Biochem Pharmacol 2009; 78:96-103. [PMID: 19447228 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2009.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2009] [Revised: 03/19/2009] [Accepted: 03/20/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Nitrobenzodiazepine (NBDZ) is a sedative-hypnotic drug used in the treatment of anxiety and sleep problems. Overdose of NBDZ may cause severe neurological effects, especially for people in drug abuse or addiction. In the present study, we investigated NBDZ nitroreduction in rat enteric contents and characterized the role of enterobacterial nitroreductase in the reductive pathway. Nitroreduction of flunitrazepam (FZ) was studied in the microsomal membrane fractions of rat liver, jejunum and jejunal microflora using HPLC analysis. In the jejunal microflora, FZ was demonstrated to be significantly reduced to its amino derivative under anaerobic condition. Escherichia coli type I nitroreductase NfsB (EC 1.5.1.34) was found in rat jejunal microflora via PCR technique and Western blotting. The participation of NfsB in FZ nitroreduction was demonstrated from inhibition studies. Kinetic study of the purified recombinant NfsB indicated that nitroreduction of FZ, nitrazepam (NZ) and clonazepam (CZ) are mediated by NfsB, where CZ shows lower k(cat)/K(M) ratio than that of the other two. Finally, two other nitroreductases E. cloacae NR (EC 1.6.99.7) and S. typhimurium Cnr were also found to be responsible for FZ nitroreduction. These results provide that the reduction of NBDZ in normal flora is catalyzed by type I nitroreductase NfsB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiuan-Woei Linwu
- Chemical Biology and Molecular Biophysics Program, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan
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Functional expression in Bacillus subtilis of mammalian NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase and its spore-display. Protein Expr Purif 2009; 63:5-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2008.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2008] [Revised: 06/20/2008] [Accepted: 07/02/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Mizuno K, Katoh M, Okumura H, Nakagawa N, Negishi T, Hashizume T, Nakajima M, Yokoi T. Metabolic Activation of Benzodiazepines by CYP3A4. Drug Metab Dispos 2008; 37:345-51. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.108.024521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Obach RS, Dobo KL. Comparison of metabolite profiles generated in Aroclor-induced rat liver and human liver subcellular fractions: considerations for in vitro genotoxicity hazard assessment. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2008; 49:631-641. [PMID: 18626997 DOI: 10.1002/em.20416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Because it is well known that metabolites of chemicals and drugs are frequently the ultimate species responsible for genotoxicity and carcinogenicity, in vitro testing to identify the human genotoxicity hazard potential of new chemicals and drugs routinely utilizes liver S-9 fraction from rats treated with Aroclor 1254 as a system that can generate metabolites. However, it is frequently questioned as to whether such an in vitro metabolite generation system is the most relevant for human risk, or whether the assay would be better served by using a human-derived in vitro system. To address this, 16 common drugs have been examined for profiles of metabolites in Aroclor-induced rat liver S-9 and pooled human liver S-9. Metabolite profiles were compared using high pressure liquid chromatography coupled with ion trap mass spectrometry, in line with ultraviolet or radiometric detection to help make semiquantitative comparisons. Results showed that, with few exceptions, metabolites generated in the human system were also generated in the rat system. Also, in several cases the rat system generated considerably more metabolites, suggesting that there is a potential that positive genotoxicity findings could be caused by metabolites that have no relevance to humans. These findings suggest that when conducting in vitro genotoxicity testing using the Aroclor-induced rat liver S-9 system, knowledge of the metabolite profile in the system is important, and a comparison to the profile generated in human liver S-9 could be of value when interpreting the genotoxicity results.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Scott Obach
- Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Drug Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut 06340, USA.
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Yim SK, Jung HC, Pan JG, Kang HS, Ahn T, Yun CH. Functional expression of mammalian NADPH–cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase on the cell surface of Escherichia coli. Protein Expr Purif 2006; 49:292-8. [PMID: 16829136 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2006.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2006] [Revised: 05/22/2006] [Accepted: 05/23/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
To develop a whole-cell oxidoreductase system without the practical limitation of substrate/product transport, easy preparation, stability of enzymes, and low expression levels, we here report the development of a whole cell biocatalyst displaying rat NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (CPR, 77-kDa) on the surface of Escherichia coli by using ice-nucleation protein from Pseudomonas syringae. Surface localization and functionality of the CPR were verified by flow cytometry, electron microscopy, and measurements of enzyme activities. The results of this study comprise the first report of microbial cell-surface display of diflavin-containing mammalian enzymes. This system will allow us to select and develop oxidoreductases, containing bulky and complex prosthetic groups of FAD and FMN, into practically useful whole-cell biocatalysts for broad biological and biotechnological applications including the selective synthesis of new chemicals and pharmaceuticals, bioconversion, bioremediation, and bio-chip development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Kun Yim
- Hormone Research Center and School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Republic of Korea
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Lee MY, Park CB, Dordick JS, Clark DS. Metabolizing enzyme toxicology assay chip (MetaChip) for high-throughput microscale toxicity analyses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:983-7. [PMID: 15657119 PMCID: PMC545843 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0406755102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The clinical progression of new chemical entities to pharmaceuticals remains hindered by the relatively slow pace of technology development in toxicology and clinical safety evaluation, particularly in vitro approaches, that can be used in the preclinical and early clinical phases of drug development. To alleviate this bottle-neck, we have developed a metabolizing enzyme toxicology assay chip (MetaChip) that combines high-throughput P450 catalysis with cell-based screening on a microscale platform. The MetaChip concept is demonstrated by using sol-gel encapsulated P450s to activate the prodrug cyclophosphamide, which is the major constituent of the anticancer drug Cytoxan, as well as other compounds that are activated by P450 metabolism. The MetaChip provides a high-throughput microscale alternative to currently used in vitro methods for human metabolism and toxicology screening based on liver slices, cultured human hepatocytes, purified microsomal preparations, or isolated and purified P450s. This technology creates opportunities for rapid and inexpensive assessment of ADME/Tox (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion/toxicology) at very early phases of drug development, thereby enabling unsuitable candidates to be eliminated from consideration much earlier in the drug discovery process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moo-Yeal Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
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