Time-dependent apoptosis of alveolar macrophages from rats exposed to bleomycin: involvement of tnf receptor 2

Biomarkers of genotoxic damage in pulmonary alveolar macrophages: a review

DNA damage is one of the primary mechanisms underlying cancer and other chronic degenerative diseases. Early evaluation of this damage in the affected cells and tissues is crucial for understanding pathogenesis and implementing effective prevention strategies. However, isolating target cells from affected organs, such as the lungs, can be challenging. Therefore, an alternative approach is to evaluate genotoxic damage in surrogate cells. Pulmonary alveolar macrophages are ideally suited for this purpose because they are in close contact with the target cells of the bronchial and alveolar epithelium, share the exact mechanisms and levels of exposure, and are easily recoverable in large numbers. This review comprehensively lists all studies using alveolar macrophages as surrogate cells to show genotoxic lung damage in humans or laboratory animals. These investigations provide fundamental information on the mechanisms of DNA damage in the lung and allow for better assessment and management of risk following exposure to inhalable genotoxic agents. Furthermore, they may be a valuable tool in cancer chemoprevention, helping the right choice of agents for clinical trials.

Flow cytometric analysis of the leukocyte landscape during bleomycin-induced lung injury and fibrosis in the rat

Bleomycin-induced lung injury and fibrosis is a well-described model to investigate lung inflammatory and remodeling mechanisms. Rat models are clinically relevant and are also widely used, but rat bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cells are not fully characterized with flow cytometry due to the limited availability of antibodies for this species. We optimized a comprehensive time-dependent flow cytometric analysis of cells after bleomycin challenge, confirming previous studies in other species and correlating them to histological staining, cytokine profiling, and collagen accumulation analysis in rat lungs. For this purpose, we describe a novel panel of rat surface markers and a strategy to identify and follow BAL cells over time. By combining surface markers in rat alveolar cells (CD45⁺), granulocytes and other myeloid cells, monocytes and macrophages can be identified by the expression of CD11b/c. Moreover, different activation states of macrophages (CD163⁺) can be observed: steady state (CD86^-MHC-II^low), activation during inflammation (CD86⁺,MHC-II^high), activation during remodeling (CD86⁺MHC-II^low), and a population of newly recruited monocytes (CD163^-α-granulocyte^-). Hydroxyproline measured as marker of collagen content in lung tissue showed positive correlation with the reparative phase (CD163^- cells and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMP) and IL-10 increase). In conclusion, after a very early granulocytic recruitment, inflammation in rat lungs is observed by activated macrophages, and high release of IL-6 and fibrotic remodeling is characterized by recovery of the macrophage population together with TIMP, IL-10, and IL-18 production. Recruited monocytes and a second peak of granulocytes appear in the transitioning phase, correlating with immunostaining of arginase-1 in the tissue, revealing the importance of events leading the changes from injury to aberrant repair.

Evaluation of 99mTc-rhAnnexin V-128 SPECT/CT as a diagnostic tool for early stages of interstitial lung disease associated with systemic sclerosis

Background

Given the need for early detection of organ involvement in systemic sclerosis, we evaluated ^99mTc-rhAnnexin V-128 for the detection of early stages of interstitial lung disease (ILD) in respective animal models using single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT/CT).

Methods

In bleomycin (BLM)-challenged mice, fos-related antigen 2 (Fra-2) transgenic (tg) mice and respective controls, lung injury was evaluated by analysis of hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and Sirius red staining, with semi-quantification of fibrosis by the Ashcroft score. Apoptotic cells were identified by TUNEL assay, cleaved caspase 3 staining and double staining with specific cell markers. To detect early stages of lung remodeling by visualization of apoptosis, mice were injected intravenously with ^99mTc-rhAnnexin V-128 and imaged by small animal SPECT/CT. For confirmation, biodistribution and ex vivo autoradiography studies were performed.

Results

In BLM-induced lung fibrosis, inflammatory infiltrates occurred as early as day 3 with peak at day 7, whereas pulmonary fibrosis developed from day 7 and was most pronounced at day 21. In accordance, the number of apoptotic cells was highest at day 3 compared with saline controls and then decreased over time. Epithelial cells (E-cadherin+) and inflammatory cells (CD45+) were the primary cells undergoing apoptosis in the earliest remodeling stages of experimental ILD. This was also true in the pathophysiologically different Fra-2 tg mice, where apoptosis of CD45+ cells occurred in the inflammatory stage. In accordance with the findings on tissue level, at day 3 in the BLM and at week 16 in the Fra-2 tg model, biodistribution and/or ex vivo autoradiography showed increased pulmonary uptake of ^99mTc-rhAnnexin V-128 compared with controls. However, accumulation of the radiotracer and thus the signal intensity in lungs was too low to allow the differentiation of healthy and injured lungs in vivo.

Conclusion

At the tissue level, ^99mTc-rhAnnexin V-128 successfully demonstrated early stages of ILD in two animal models by detection of apoptotic epithelial and/or inflammatory cells. In vivo, however, we did not detect early lung injury. It remains to be investigated whether the same applies to human ILD.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13075-018-1681-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Lrp5/β-Catenin Signaling Controls Lung Macrophage Differentiation and Inhibits Resolution of Fibrosis

Previous studies established that attenuating Wnt/β-catenin signaling limits lung fibrosis in the bleomycin mouse model of this disease, but the contribution of this pathway to distinct lung cell phenotypes relevant to tissue repair and fibrosis remains incompletely understood. Using microarray analysis, we found that bleomycin-injured lungs from mice that lack the Wnt coreceptor low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5 (Lrp5) and exhibit reduced fibrosis showed enrichment for pathways related to extracellular matrix processing, immunity, and lymphocyte proliferation, suggesting the contribution of an immune-matrix remodeling axis relevant to fibrosis. Activation of β-catenin signaling was seen in lung macrophages using the β-catenin reporter mouse, Axin2^+/LacZ. Analysis of lung immune cells by flow cytometry after bleomycin administration revealed that Lrp5^-/- lungs contained significantly fewer Siglec F^low alveolar macrophages, a cell type previously implicated as positive effectors of fibrosis. Macrophage-specific deletion of β-catenin in CD11c^cre;β-catenin^flox mice did not prevent development of bleomycin-induced fibrosis but facilitated its resolution by 8 weeks. In a nonresolving model of fibrosis, intratracheal administration of asbestos in Lrp5^-/- mice also did not prevent the development of fibrosis but hindered the progression of fibrosis in asbestos-treated Lrp5^-/- lungs, phenocopying the findings in bleomycin-treated CD11c^cre;β-catenin^flox mice. Activation of β-catenin signaling using lithium chloride resulted in worsened fibrosis in wild-type mice, further supporting that the effects of loss of Lrp5 are directly mediated by Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Together, these data suggest that lung myeloid cells are responsive to Lrp5/β-catenin signaling, leading to differentiation of an alveolar macrophage subtype that antagonizes the resolution of lung fibrosis.

Activation of TNFR2 sensitizes macrophages for TNFR1-mediated necroptosis

Macrophages express TNFR1 as well as TNFR2 and are also major producers of tumor necrosis factor (TNF), especially upon contact with pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Consequently, TNF not only acts as a macrophage-derived effector molecule but also regulates the activity and viability of macrophages. Here, we investigated the individual contribution of TNFR1 and TNFR2 to TNF-induced cell death in macrophages. Exclusive stimulation of TNFR1 showed no cytotoxic effect whereas selective stimulation of TNFR2 displayed mild cytotoxicity. Intriguingly, the latter was strongly enhanced by the caspase inhibitor zVAD-fmk. The strong cytotoxic activity of TNFR2 in the presence of zVAD-fmk was reversed by necrostatin-1, indicating necroptotic cell death. TNFR1- and TNF-deficient macrophages turned out to be resistant against TNFR2-induced cell death. In addition, the cIAP-depleting SMAC mimetic BV6 also enforced TNF/TNFR1-mediated necroptotic cell death in the presence of zVAD-fmk. In sum, our data suggest a model in which TNFR2 sensitizes macrophages for endogenous TNF-induced TNFR1-mediated necroptosis by the known ability of TNFR2 to interfere with the survival activity of TRAF2-cIAP1/2 complexes.

Flow cytometric analysis of macrophages and dendritic cell subsets in the mouse lung

The lung hosts multiple populations of macrophages and dendritic cells, which play a crucial role in lung pathology. The accurate identification and enumeration of these subsets are essential for understanding their role in lung pathology. Flow cytometry is a mainstream tool for studying the immune system. However, a systematic flow cytometric approach to identify subsets of macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) accurately and consistently in the normal mouse lung has not been described. Here we developed a panel of surface markers and an analysis strategy that accurately identify all known populations of macrophages and DCs, and their precursors in the lung during steady-state conditions and bleomycin-induced injury. Using this panel, we assessed the polarization of lung macrophages during the course of bleomycin-induced lung injury. Alveolar macrophages expressed markers of alternatively activated macrophages during both acute and fibrotic phases of bleomycin-induced lung injury, whereas markers of classically activated macrophages were expressed only during the acute phase. Taken together, these data suggest that this flow cytometric panel is very helpful in identifying macrophage and DC populations and their state of activation in normal, injured, and fibrotic lungs.

Simvastatin protects hepatocytes from apoptosis by suppressing the TNF-α/caspase-3 signaling pathway in mice with burn injury

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the liver cellular apoptosis in response to burn injury and find out if statin treatment can ameliorate this process. The hypothesis is that statin may modulate apoptosis-related gene expression and thereby reduce hepatocytic apoptosis after burn injury.

METHODS

Mice were subjected to 30% full-thickness burn injury and then treated either with or without simvastatin. The livers were harvested for histological assessment and determinations of gene expression. To investigate the mechanism involved, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and caspase-3 knockout (KO) mice were also used to evaluate the effects of burn injury and simvastatin treatment on burn-induced liver injury. The effects of simvastatin on TNF-α and caspase-3 expressions were also evaluated in cultured mouse hepatocytes.

RESULTS

Burn injury induced significant liver damage, which was indicated by striking levels of apoptosis. Simvastatin reduced the apoptotic index in the livers of mice with burn injury and this effect could be abrogated by TNF-α or caspase-3 inhibitors. Simvastatin also decreased burn-induced TNF-α and caspase-3 expression in the liver. TNF-α and caspase-3 KO mice demonstrated lower levels of apoptotic hepatocytes in response to burn, and simvastatin did not further decrease hepatocyte apoptosis in either strain of KO mice. An in vitro study demonstrated that simvastatin suppresses TNF-α and caspase-3 expression in primary cultures of mouse hepatocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

Simvastatin reduces mouse hepatocyte apoptosis by suppressing expression of the TNF-α/caspase-3 pathway.

Decreased apoptotic rate of alveolar macrophages of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

Introduction. Increased apoptosis of epithelial cells and decreased apoptosis of myofibroblasts are involved in the pathogenesis of IPF. The apoptotic profile of alveolar macrophages (AMs) in IPF is unclear. Aim. To investigate whether AMs of patients with IPF exhibit a different apoptotic profile compared to normal subjects. Methods. We analyzed, by immunohistochemistry, the expression of the apoptotic markers fas, fas ligand , bcl-2, and bax in AM obtained from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of 20 newly diagnosed, treatment-naive IPF patients and of 16 controls. Apoptosis of AM was evaluated by Apoptag immunohistochemistry. IPF patients received either interferon-g and corticosteroids or azathioprine and corticosteroids for six months. Results. BALF AMs undergoing apoptosis were significantly less in IPF patients. No difference was found in the expression of fas or fas ligand, bcl-2 and bax between IPF and control group. No difference was found between the respiratory function parameters of the two treatment groups after six months. A positive correlation was found between the number of bcl-2 positive stained macrophages and DLCO after treatment. Conclusions. The decreased apoptotic rate of AM of patients with IPF is not associated with decreased expression of apoptosis mediators involved in the external or internal apoptotic pathway.

Response patterns of cytokines/chemokines in two murine strains after irradiation

PURPOSE

To determine the plasma concentrations of acute responding cytokines/chemokines following 9-Gy ionizing radiation in C57BL/6 (radiation tolerant) and C3H/HeN (radiation sensitive) murine strains.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Mice (5/group) received 9-Gy total body irradiation (TBI), and the plasma from each mouse was collected at 6h or 1, 2, 4, or 10 days after TBI. A multiplex bead array was used to assess the levels of 32 cytokines/chemokines in plasma to determine their common and strain-specific temporal responses.

RESULTS

The plasma levels of five cytokines/chemokines (Axl, FasL, ICAM-1, TARC, and TSLP) were beyond the detectable level. Five (VEGF, IL-2, IL-5, IL-17, and CD30) were unaffected by irradiation in either strain. Temporal patterns were similar in both murine strains for 10 of the cytokines tested, including G-CSF, IL-6, TCA-3, MCP-1, MIP-1γ, KC, CXCL 13, CXCL 16, MDC, and TIMP-1; the other 12 molecules (GM-CSF, IL-3, SCF, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-10, IL-12p70, MIP-1α, Eotaxin, TNF-α, sTNF-R1, and CD40) showed strain-specific response patterns. While a number of cytokines had temporal response patterns following TBI, the strains exhibited quantitatively different results.

CONCLUSIONS

The levels of 27 of the 32 plasma cytokines measured indicate the following: (1) different cytokine concentrations and temporal patterns in the two strains may partly explain different radiation sensitivities and sequelae following irradiation; (2) many of the cytokines/chemokines exhibit similar temporal responses in the two strains. These responses suggest the potential value of using a panel of cytokine/chemokine temporal patterns for radiation dosimetry. Although radiation doses will be difficult to quantitate due to the large variation in levels and temporal responses exhibited in the two murine strains, serial measurements of cytokines might help identify subjects exposed to radiation.

Yin yang 1 is a novel regulator of pulmonary fibrosis

RATIONALE

The differentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts is a cardinal feature of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). The transcription factor Yin Yang 1 (YY1) plays a role in the proliferation and differentiation of diverse cell types, but its role in fibrotic lung diseases is not known.

OBJECTIVES

To elucidate the mechanism by which YY1 regulates fibroblast differentiation and lung fibrosis.

METHODS

Lung fibroblasts were cultured with transforming growth factor (TGF)-β or tumor necrosis factor-α. Nuclear factor (NF)-κB, YY1, and α-smooth muscle actin (SMA) were determined in protein, mRNA, and promoter reporter level. Lung fibroblasts and lung fibrosis were assessed in a partial YY1-deficient mouse and a YY1(f/f) conditional knockout mouse after being exposed to silica or bleomycin.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

TGF-β and tumor necrosis factor-α up-regulated YY1 expression in lung fibroblasts. TGF-β-induced YY1 expression was dramatically decreased by an inhibitor of NF-κB, which blocked I-κB degradation. YY1 is significantly overexpressed in both human IPF and murine models of lung fibrosis, including in the aggregated pulmonary fibroblasts of fibrotic foci. Furthermore, the mechanism of fibrogenesis is that YY1 can up-regulate α-SMA expression in pulmonary fibroblasts. YY1-deficient (YY1(+/-)) mice were significantly protected from lung fibrosis, which was associated with attenuated α-SMA and collagen expression. Finally, decreasing YY1 expression through instilled adenovirus-cre in floxed-YY1(f/f) mice reduced lung fibrosis.

CONCLUSIONS

YY1 is overexpressed in fibroblasts in both human IPF and murine models in a NF-κB-dependent manner, and YY1 regulates fibrogenesis at least in part by increasing α-SMA and collagen expression. Decreasing YY1 expression may provide a new therapeutic strategy for pulmonary fibrosis.

Regulation of caveolin-1 expression, nitric oxide production and tissue injury by tumor necrosis factor-alpha following ozone inhalation

Alveolar macrophages (AM) and inflammatory mediators including nitric oxide and peroxynitrite contribute to ozone-induced lung injury. The generation of these mediators is regulated, in part, by the transcription factor NF-kappaB. We previously demonstrated a critical role for NF-kappaB p50 in ozone-induced injury. In the present studies mechanisms regulating NF-kappaB activation in the lung after ozone inhalation were analyzed. Treatment of wild type (WT) mice with ozone (0.8 ppm, 3 h) resulted in a rapid increase in NF-kappaB binding activity in AM, which persisted for at least 12 h. This was not evident in mice lacking TNFalpha which are protected from ozone-induced injury; there was also no evidence of nitric oxide or peroxynitrite production in lungs from these animals. These data demonstrate that TNFalpha plays a role in NF-kappaB activation and toxicity. TNFalpha signaling involves PI-3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (PKB), and p44/42 MAP kinase (MAPK) which are important in NF-kappaB activation. Ozone Inhalation resulted in rapid and transient increases in p44/42 MAPK and PI3K/PKB in AM from WT mice, which was evident immediately after exposure. Caveolin-1, a transmembrane protein that negatively regulates PI3K/PKB and p44/42 MAPK signaling, was downregulated in AM from WT mice after ozone exposure. In contrast, ozone had no effect on caveolin-1, PI3K/PKB or p44/42 MAPK expression in AM from TNFalpha knockout mice. These data, together with our findings that TNFalpha suppressed caveolin-1 expression in cultured AM, suggest that TNFalpha and downstream signaling mediate activation of NF-kappaB and the regulation of inflammatory genes important in ozone toxicity, and that this process is linked to caveolin-1.

Apoptosis and release of CD44s in bleomycin-treated L132 cells

The anti-cancer drug bleomycin (BLM) induces lung injury and triggers apoptosis of alveolar epithelial cells. In epithelia, among other functions, the adhesion protein CD44 promotes the contact to components of the extracellular matrix like hyaluronate. A functional link between apoptosis and the loss of CD44 has been observed in colon carcinoma cells and involvement of CD44 in apoptosis of lung cells has been reported in several studies. The present in vitro study examined the expression of CD44s (CD44 standard) in two human epithelial lung cell lines, L132 and A549, during BLM-induced apoptosis. A loss of CD44s by lung epithelial cells and an increase of the soluble form of this adhesion protein in culture supernatants upon exposure to BLM were observed. Apoptosis was characterized by an activation of caspase-3 as well as by release of cytochrome C into the cytosol as shown for L132 cells. Inhibition of apoptosis by the broad-range caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-fmk reduced CD44 release by both cell lines demonstrating that CD44 release is a result of apoptotic processes. Kinetic experiments failed to discriminate between the initiation of apoptosis and CD44 release. Blocking experiments using antagonistic anti-CD95 receptor antibodies revealed that BLM may cause apoptosis and CD44 release in a CD95-independent manner.