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Taevernier L, Veryser L, Roche N, Peremans K, Burvenich C, Delesalle C, De Spiegeleer B. Human skin permeation of emerging mycotoxins (beauvericin and enniatins). JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2016; 26:277-287. [PMID: 25757886 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2015.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Revised: 10/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/05/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Currently, dermal exposure data of cyclic depsipeptide mycotoxins are completely absent. There is a lack of understanding about the local skin and systemic kinetics and effects, despite their widespread skin contact and intrinsic hazard. Therefore, we provide a quantitative characterisation of their dermal kinetics. The emerging mycotoxins enniatins (ENNs) and beauvericin (BEA) were used as model compounds and their transdermal kinetics were quantitatively evaluated, using intact and damaged human skin in an in vitro Franz diffusion cell set-up and ultra high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC)-MS analytics. We demonstrated that all investigated mycotoxins are able to penetrate through the skin. ENN B showed the highest permeation (kp,v=9.44 × 10(-6) cm/h), whereas BEA showed the lowest (kp,v=2.35 × 10(-6) cm/h) and the other ENNs ranging in between. Combining these values with experimentally determined solubility data, Jmax values ranging from 0.02 to 0.35 μg/(cm(2) h) for intact skin and from 0.07 to 1.11 μg/(cm(2) h) for damaged skin were obtained. These were used to determine the daily dermal exposure (DDE) in a worst-case scenario. On the other hand, DDE's for a typical occupational scenario were calculated based on real-life mycotoxin concentrations for the industrial exposure of food-related workers. In the latter case, for contact with intact human skin, DDE's up to 0.0870 ng/(kg BW × day) for ENN A were calculated, whereas for impaired skin barrier this can even rise up to 0.3209 ng/(kg BW × day) for ENN B1. This knowledge is needed for the risk assessment after skin exposure of contaminated food, feed, indoor surfaces and airborne particles with mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lien Taevernier
- Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lieselotte Veryser
- Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Nathalie Roche
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, University Hospital Ghent, De Pintelaan 185, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kathelijne Peremans
- Department of Medical Imaging and Small Animal Orthopaedics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Christian Burvenich
- Department of Comparative Physiology and Biometrics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Catherine Delesalle
- Department of Comparative Physiology and Biometrics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Bart De Spiegeleer
- Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent, Belgium
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Chaudhary M, Bhaskar ASB, Rao PVL. Differential effects of route of T-2 toxin exposure on hepatic oxidative damage in mice. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2015; 30:64-73. [PMID: 23929680 DOI: 10.1002/tox.21895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Revised: 07/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
T-2 toxin is the most toxic among mycotoxins and poses a potential health hazard for both humans and animals. At high doses, T-2 toxin can cause shock-like syndrome that can result in death. We evaluated the effect of time course and route of exposure on hepatic oxidative damage in mice and it is only such study so far to compare the effects of dermal and subcutaneous exposure of T-2 toxin. Mice were exposed to 1 LD50 of T-2 toxin either by percutaneous (5.94 mg/kg body weight) or subcutaneous (1.54 mg/kg body weight) route and sacrificed at 0, 1, 3, and 7 days postexposure. Analysis of a number of serum biochemical variables, antioxidant enzymes activity, gene and protein expression by immunoblot assay showed time and route dependent effects of T-2 induced hepatic oxidative damage. Time dependent increase in protein carbonyl content and protein oxidation was seen in serum and liver. Results of our study may provide possible mechanism for developing medical countermeasures against T-2 toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manjari Chaudhary
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Defence Research and Development Establishment, Jhansi Road, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, 474002, India
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Doi K, Uetsuka K. Mechanisms of Mycotoxin-induced Dermal Toxicity and Tumorigenesis Through Oxidative Stress-related Pathways. J Toxicol Pathol 2014; 27:1-10. [PMID: 24791061 PMCID: PMC4000067 DOI: 10.1293/tox.2013-0062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 11/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Among the many mycotoxins, T-2 toxin, citrinin (CTN), patulin (PAT), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are known to have the potential to induce dermal toxicity and/or tumorigenesis in rodent models. T-2 toxin, CTN, PAT and OTA induce apoptosis in mouse or rat skin. PAT, AFB1 and OTA have tumor initiating properties, and OTA is also a tumor promoter in mouse skin. This paper reviews the molecular mechanisms of dermal toxicity and tumorigenesis induced in rodent models by these mycotoxins especially from the viewpoint of oxidative stress-mediated pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunio Doi
- Bozo Research Center Inc., 8 Ohkubo, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 300-2611, Japan ; Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Koji Uetsuka
- Animal Health Laboratory, College of Agriculture, Ibaraki University, 3-21-1, Ami-machi, Inashiki-gun, Ibaraki 300-0393, Japan
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Human skin penetration of selected model mycotoxins. Toxicology 2012; 301:21-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2012.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2012] [Revised: 05/24/2012] [Accepted: 06/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunio Doi
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
| | - Junko Shinozuka
- Exploratory Toxicology and DMPK Research Laboratories, Tanabe Seiyaku Co., Ltd
| | - Shinya Sehata
- Medical Safety Research Laboratories, Sankyo Co., Ltd
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Albarenque SM, Doi K. T-2 toxin-induced apoptosis in rat keratinocyte primary cultures. Exp Mol Pathol 2005; 78:144-9. [PMID: 15713441 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexmp.2004.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2004] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
T-2 toxin, a kind of trichothecene mycotoxins produced by the genus Fusarium, induces apoptosis in basal keratinocytes when topically applied to the dorsal skin of rats. In the present study, direct effects of T-2 toxin on keratinocyte primary cultures obtained from newborn rats were examined after the third passage. Keratinocyte medium containing 0.25 microg/ml of T-2 toxin dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide or solvent alone was added to 4-day cultures and incubated at 37 degrees C. At 0.5, 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 h after treatment (h), feeder layer was separated from flasks, and cells were trypsinized. Cell viability was estimated by trypan blue exclusion method. In addition, RNA was obtained and RT-PCR was performed. Samples obtained from slide cultures at 3, 6, 9, and 12 h were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde or 2.5% glutaraldehyde for morphological examination. After T-2 toxin application, cell viability decreased to 40% at 3 h. At 6 h, small-sized keratinocytes showed pyknosis or karyorrhexis, resulting in detachment from slides. The number of such cells increased until 12 h. These small-sized keratinocytes showed ultrastructural changes characteristic for apoptosis. At the same time, large squamous keratinocytes showed intracytoplasmic edema. The expression of apoptosis-related genes (c-fos and c-jun) and cytokines (TNF-alpha and IL-1beta) mRNAs markedly increased before the development of apoptosis. These findings indicate that c-fos and c-jun oncogenes and TNF-alpha and IL-1beta play an important role in the development of T-2 toxin-induced apoptosis in keratinocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella Maris Albarenque
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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Albarenque SM, Shinozuka J, Suzuki K, Nakayama H, Doi K. Kinetics and distribution of transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta 1 mRNA in the dorsal skin of hypotrichotic WBN/ILA-Ht rats following topical application of T-2 toxin. EXPERIMENTAL AND TOXICOLOGIC PATHOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE GESELLSCHAFT FUR TOXIKOLOGISCHE PATHOLOGIE 2000; 52:297-301. [PMID: 10987180 DOI: 10.1016/s0940-2993(00)80050-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Depression of basal cell proliferating activity and subsequent induction of basal cell apoptosis in the epidermis and infiltration of inflammatory cells including mast cells in the dermis were observed in the dorsal skin of hypotrichotic WBN/ILA-Ht rats following the topical application of T-2 toxin in our previous study (ALBARENQUE et al. 1999). In the present study, kinetics of TGF-beta 1 mRNA was investigated using the same experimental system. The level of TGF-beta 1 mRNA of the whole skin tissue measured by competitive RT-PCR method showed a slight elevation from 6 to 12 hours after treatment (HAT) and reached the significantly higher level at 24HAT compared with the control skin. The increase in signals of TGF-beta 1 mRNA detected by in situ hybridization method started at 3HAT in the epidermis and progressed thereafter both in the epidermis and in the dermis. These results suggest that the elevated level of TGF-beta 1 mRNA may have a close relation to the induction of epidermal basal cell apoptosis as well as to the intradermal infiltration of mast cells and fibroblasts following the topical application of T-2 toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Albarenque
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, The University of Tokyo, Japan
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Abstract
Hazardous materials offer a variety of unique challenges to emergency personnel. These agents have immense economic impact, but when mishandled, they become notorious for turning contained accidents into disasters involving the entire community. During a hazmat accident, the victims often ignore the rules of the disaster plan by seeking out the nearest hospital for medical care, regardless of that institution's capabilities. Health care workers rushing to the aid of contaminated individuals, without taking appropriate precautions (i.e., donning PPE), potentially make themselves victims. Disaster preparedness requires planning, policy, and procedure development, hazard analysis, training, and the availability of personal protective equipment for all responding personnel. Presently, the level of hazmat preparedness varies greatly among different hospitals, EMS and fire services, and disaster response teams. These differences in hazmat preparedness can be linked to a variety of factors (lack of awareness, funding, and support) and controversies (types of PPE and level of training required) which have prevented the establishment of a national hazmat policy for most of these organizations. Despite these difficulties, emergency departments continue to be the primary provider of care to contaminated individuals. As a result, emergency physicians must work with their hospital to implement a hazmat decontamination program in order to appropriately care for these individuals. The appendix to this article presents a list of recommendations for hospital hazmat preparedness. It is modeled after existing CDC and OSHA guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- H W Levitin
- Department of Emergency Medicine, St. Francis Hospital and Health Centers, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
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Kirk MA, Cisek J, Rose SR. Emergency Department Response to Hazardous Materials Incidents. Emerg Med Clin North Am 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0733-8627(20)30438-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Yagen B, Bialer M. Metabolism and pharmacokinetics of T-2 toxin and related trichothecenes. Drug Metab Rev 1993; 25:281-323. [PMID: 8404460 DOI: 10.3109/03602539308993978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- B Yagen
- Department of Natural Products, School of Pharmacy, Hebrew University Hadassah Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
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Solberg VB, Broski FH, Dinterman RE, George DT. Penetration of [3H]T-2 mycotoxin through abraded and intact skin and methods to decontaminate [3H]T-2 mycotoxin from abrasions. Toxicon 1990; 28:803-11. [PMID: 2219142 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(09)80003-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Penetration of 50 muCi of [3H]T-2 mycotoxin through abraded and intact skin was studied in anesthetized rats sacrificed at 5, 15, 30, 45, 60 and 90 min post-exposure. The greatest penetration was through abraded skin (49 +/- 7%) at 90 min post-exposure, whereas penetration through intact skin (2 +/- 3%) was substantially less (P less than 0.0015). Methods to decontaminate [3H]T-2 mycotoxin from abraded skin over time were studied. Treatment of [3H]T-2 contaminated abrasions by applying Trau + Medic dressing, applying Charcoal Cloth-Anti-bacterial Field Dressing (Charcoal Dressing), or swabbing with povidone-iodine 30 min post-exposure removed 17-32% of the applied [3H]T-2. Immediate blotting with immediate removal of the dressings absorbed 103 +/- 4% (Trau + Medic) and 87 +/- 4% (Charcoal Dressing) of the applied [3H]T-2, while immediate blotting and leaving the dressing in place for 30 min removed 91 +/- 5% (Trau + Medic) and 76 +/- 3% (Charcoal Dressing). It appears that immediate blotting with either dressing followed by immediate removal before application of a clean dressing is an effective method for decontaminating [3H]T-2 from abrasions.
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Affiliation(s)
- V B Solberg
- U.S. Army Biomedical Research and Development Laboratory, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702-5010
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