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Xiao L, Yao M, Liu H. Perceived Social Mobility and Smartphone Dependence in University Students: The Roles of Hope and Family Socioeconomic Status. Psychol Res Behav Manag 2024; 17:1805-1817. [PMID: 38707964 PMCID: PMC11070161 DOI: 10.2147/prbm.s455939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose Drawing upon the cognitive-behavioral model of pathological Internet use (PIU) and tunnel effect, this study aimed to construct a moderated mediation model from the perspective of social ecology. Specifically, the model investigated the relationship between perceived social mobility and smartphone dependence, with a focus on the mediating role of hope and the moderating effect of family socioeconomic status (SES) underlying this relationship. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted with 718 Chinese university students (Mage = 19.19, 70.2% female) from Beijing, Henan, and Tianjin, who anonymously filled out the Perceptions of Socioeconomic Mobility Scale, Mobile Phone Addiction Index Scale, Openness to the Future Scale, and family socioeconomic status questionnaire. Preliminary data analysis was executed using SPSS 22.0, and the moderated mediation effect was tested using the latent moderated structural equations approach in Mplus 8.3. Results The results showed that (a) less perceived social mobility was linked with greater smartphone dependence; (b) hope mediated the aforementioned relationship; and (c) family SES moderated the first-stage path of the indirect effect through hope. For university students with low (rather than high) family SES, their level of hope increased with the improvement of perceived social mobility, and in turn, that of smartphone dependence decreased. Conclusion These findings suggest that positive perceptions of upward social class mobility and hopeful attitudes toward future opportunities and personal development among disadvantaged university students may alleviate their reliance on smartphones. Researchers and policymakers should pay attention to the role of individuals' perceptions of the macro environment in motivating specific risky behaviors among university students. Future interventions are essential to mitigate pessimistic environmental perceptions and foster a sense of hope among university students.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luxia Xiao
- Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Meilin Yao
- Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hongrui Liu
- Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
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2
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Xiang S, Zhao S, Xiao J, Wang Y, Li Y, Liu Z, Lin D. Longitudinal Trajectories of Social Mobility Beliefs among Chinese Adolescents: The Protective Roles of Parental Academic Involvement and Adolescent Future Orientation. J Youth Adolesc 2024:10.1007/s10964-024-01984-x. [PMID: 38622470 DOI: 10.1007/s10964-024-01984-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/31/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Social mobility beliefs play a significant role in shaping adolescents' adaptive developmental outcomes, including well-being and academic functioning. Nevertheless, existing research may not cast light on the distinct trajectories and potential protective factors of social mobility beliefs. The present study aims to identify heterogeneity in trajectory patterns of social mobility beliefs among Chinese adolescents (Mage = 12.45, SDage = 2.60; 55.1% boys; 40.0% rural adolescents) in a four-wave (i.e., fall 2017, fall 2018, spring 2019, and fall 2019) longitudinal design, and examines the protective roles of parental academic involvement and adolescent future orientation. Three distinct trajectories of social mobility beliefs were identified: high-increasing (35.1%; a positive trajectory with the best developmental outcomes, including the lowest problem behaviors and depression symptoms, and the highest life satisfaction and academic competence), moderate-stable (49.8%), and low-decreasing (15.1%; a negative trajectory with the worst developmental outcomes, including the highest problem behaviors and depression symptoms, and the lowest life satisfaction and academic competence). Apart from the main effects of parental academic involvement and future orientation, a significant interaction effect of these two protective factors and adolescent group was detected, and only rural adolescents who reported both high levels of parental academic involvement and future orientation have a greater chance of being placed in the high-increasing trajectory than the low-decreasing trajectory. These findings highlight the significance of clarifying individual differences in the dynamic process of social mobility beliefs during adolescence, and elucidate rural-urban disparities in the influences of protective factors on social mobility beliefs trajectories, and inform individualized intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyuan Xiang
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Shan Zhao
- School of Public Health, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiale Xiao
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Yaqiong Wang
- Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuanyuan Li
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Zelin Liu
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Danhua Lin
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.
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3
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Thulien NS, Hwang SW, Kozloff N, Nisenbaum R, Akdikmen A, Fambegbe OP, Feraday R, Mathewson C, Mutamiri M, Roglich J, Wang A, Zagala M, Amiri A. "When I think about my future, I just see darkness": How youth exiting homelessness navigate the hazy, liminal space between socioeconomic exclusion and inclusion. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH = REVUE CANADIENNE DE SANTE PUBLIQUE 2023; 114:893-905. [PMID: 37462842 PMCID: PMC10661585 DOI: 10.17269/s41997-023-00804-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The overarching objective of this mixed methods longitudinal study was to understand whether and how rent subsidies and mentorship influenced socioeconomic inclusion outcomes for youth exiting homelessness. The focus of this paper is on the qualitative objectives, which evolved from a primary focus on exploring how study mentorship was working as a facilitator of socioeconomic inclusion to focusing on how participants navigated the hazy, liminal space between socioeconomic exclusion and inclusion. METHODS This was a convergent mixed methods study scaffolded by community-based participatory action axiology. The quantitative component is reported elsewhere and involved a 2-year pilot randomized controlled trial where 24 participants received rent subsidies and 13 were randomly assigned a study mentor; proxy indicators of socioeconomic inclusion were measured every 6 months for 2.5 years. Qualitative objectives were explored using a qualitative descriptive design and theoretically framed using critical social theory. The lead author interviewed 12 participants every 6 months for 2.5 years. Qualitative interviews were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis with an emphasis on critical interpretation. RESULTS Navigating the liminal space between socioeconomic exclusion and inclusion was complex and non-linear, and the way youth navigated that journey was more strongly associated with factors like informal mentorship (naturally occurring "coach-like" mentorship) and identity capital (sense of purpose, control, self-efficacy, and self-esteem), rather than whether or not they were assigned a formal study mentor. CONCLUSION A holistic approach integrating coaching and attention to identity capital alongside economic supports may be key to helping youth exiting homelessness achieve socioeconomic inclusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi S Thulien
- MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute of St Michael's Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
- Centre for Critical Qualitative Health Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
| | - Stephen W Hwang
- MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute of St Michael's Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Division of General Internal Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nicole Kozloff
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Slaight Family Centre for Youth in Transition, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Rosane Nisenbaum
- MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute of St Michael's Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Applied Health Research Centre, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute of St Michael's Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Alex Akdikmen
- MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute of St Michael's Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Oluwapelumi Pukky Fambegbe
- MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute of St Michael's Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Faculty of Health, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Robyn Feraday
- MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute of St Michael's Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Caitlin Mathewson
- MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute of St Michael's Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Mohawk College, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Matthew Mutamiri
- MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute of St Michael's Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Julia Roglich
- MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute of St Michael's Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Lawrence S. Bloomberg Faculty of Nursing, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Andrea Wang
- MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute of St Michael's Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- School of Medicine, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Micah Zagala
- MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute of St Michael's Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Alexandra Amiri
- MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute of St Michael's Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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Burger K. Revisiting the power of future expectations and educational path dependencies. ADVANCES IN LIFE COURSE RESEARCH 2023; 58:100581. [PMID: 38054873 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcr.2023.100581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
Individuals from more advantaged socioeconomic backgrounds and those with loftier future expectations typically have higher educational attainment. However, it is important to understand just how consequential future expectations are for educational attainment independent of socioeconomic origins-because these expectations might enable intergenerational social mobility. Moreover, it is unclear whether institutional structures moderate the influences of socioeconomic origins and future expectations on educational attainment. I address these questions by analyzing educational attainment as it relates to transitions in a system that offers multiple educational tracks. Using data from a 15-year longitudinal study conducted in Switzerland (N = 4986), I analyze transitions from lower- to upper-secondary education (academic vs. vocational tracks) and from there to university. Path models reveal that both socioeconomic origins and future expectations are significantly associated with individuals' probability of moving along academic paths and into university, but future expectations have a strong unique predictive power even when controlling for socioeconomic origins. However, because the education system partially channels educational trajectories along distinct educational tracks, it minimizes the beneficial effect of future expectations on educational attainment and-by extension-intergenerational social mobility. I conclude that socioeconomic advantage and optimistic future expectations may only shape educational attainment to the extent that institutional opportunity structures allow such resources to take effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaspar Burger
- Center for Childhood and Youth Research, Department of Social Sciences, University of Luxembourg, 11, Porte des Sciences (MSH), L-4366 Esch-Belval, Luxembourg; Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich, Andreasstrasse 15, 8050 Zurich, Switzerland; Social Research Institute, Institute of Education, University College London, 55-59 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0AL, United Kingdom.
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Hernandez IA, Silverman DM, Rosario RJ, Destin M. Concern about experiencing downward socioeconomic mobility generates precarious types of motivation among students of color. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION 2023; 26:1-32. [PMID: 36743269 PMCID: PMC9885402 DOI: 10.1007/s11218-023-09763-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Students' beliefs about whether they will experience changes in their socioeconomic status influence their academic motivation. We propose that students who are concerned about downward socioeconomic mobility will focus their attention on negative academic outcomes and exhibit motivational goals oriented towards preventing negative possibilities and that this relationship will be particularly pronounced among students of color. Two studies investigated the relationship between college students' concerns about downward socioeconomic mobility and their adoption of academic achievement goals. The more that students of color expressed concerns about experiencing downward socioeconomic mobility, the more they adopted academic mastery-avoidance goals (β = 0.76), whereas there was no significant relationship between concerns about downward socioeconomic mobility and mastery-avoidance goals among White students (β = - 0.24; Study 1). Experimentally induced concerns about downward socioeconomic mobility increased academic mastery-avoidance goals among students of color (β = - 0.58) but decreased mastery-avoidance goals among White students (β = 0.46; Study 2). Together, results indicate that there is a strong relationship between concerns about downward socioeconomic mobility and mastery-avoidance goals among students of color, highlighting the importance of understating how students of color make sense of their future socioeconomic prospects in order to most effectively support their academic trajectories positively. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11218-023-09763-5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan A. Hernandez
- San Diego State University, 6475 Alvarado Rd., Suite 135, San Diego, CA 92120 USA
| | | | | | - Mesmin Destin
- Department of Psychology, School of Education & Social Policy, Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
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Chen X, Allen JL, Hesketh T. The influence of individual, peer, and family factors on the educational aspirations of adolescents in rural China. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION 2023; 26:1-25. [PMID: 36721824 PMCID: PMC9880925 DOI: 10.1007/s11218-023-09765-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Educational aspirations are an important predictor of academic outcomes. While there has been considerable research on educational aspirations in the West, there has been little research in East Asia, and the investigation of factors influencing adolescent aspirations has been neglected, particularly in rural areas. Drawing on ecological systems theory and social cognitive career theory, this study investigated the associations between educational aspirations and factors at the individual, peer, and family levels among rural Chinese adolescents. A total of 606 students (M age = 14.85 years; 50% boys) from a rural town in Central China completed questionnaires assessing their educational aspirations, individual factors (academic performance, academic self-perception, academic self-regulation, attitudes toward teachers, and goal valuation), and contextual factors (family socioeconomic status, parent and peer relationship quality, and parental and close friends' aspirations). Individual factors and aspirations of others had significant direct effects on adolescents' educational aspirations, while parent and peer attachments were significantly related to educational aspirations via individual factors. Family socioeconomic status was not significantly related to adolescents' educational aspirations. The findings highlight the importance of individual factors as mechanisms explaining the link between contextual factors and rural Chinese adolescents' educational aspirations. Our results suggest that interventions can be designed to increase and maintain the aspirations of rural Chinese youth by targeting multiple domains of influence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodi Chen
- Institute for Global Health, University College London, 30 Guilford Street, London, WC1N 1EH UK
| | | | - Therese Hesketh
- Institute for Global Health, University College London, 30 Guilford Street, London, WC1N 1EH UK
- Center for Global Health, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
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7
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Perception of economic inequality weakens Americans’ beliefs in both upward and downward socioeconomic mobility. ASIAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/ajsp.12481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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8
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Seeking pleasure or growth? The mediating role of happiness motives in the longitudinal relationship between social mobility beliefs and well-being in college students. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2021.111170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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9
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Abstract
People struggle to stay motivated to work toward difficult goals. Sometimes the feeling of difficulty signals that the goal is important and worth pursuing; other times, it signals that the goal is impossible and should be abandoned. In this article, we argue that how difficulty is experienced depends on how we perceive and experience the timing of difficult events. We synthesize research from across the social and behavioral sciences and propose a new, integrated model to explain how components of time perception interact with interpretations of experienced difficulty to influence motivation and goal-directed behavior. Although these constructs have been studied separately in previous research, we suggest that these factors are inseparable and that an integrated model will help us to better understand motivation and predict behavior. We conclude with new empirical questions to guide future research and by discussing the implications of this research for both theory and intervention practice.
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10
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Davidai S, Wienk MNA. The psychology of lay beliefs about economic mobility. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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11
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Ming H, Zhang F, Jiang Y, Ren Y, Huang S. Family socio-economic status and children's executive function: The moderating effects of parental subjective socio-economic status and children's subjective social mobility. Br J Psychol 2021; 112:720-740. [PMID: 33421109 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Family socio-economic status (SES) is significantly related to disparities in children's executive function. Children from economically disadvantaged backgrounds perform worse on executive function tasks than their peers from high-SES families. The protective factors in the relationship between SES and executive function have not been sufficiently investigated, especially from the perspective of parents' and children's perceptions and expectations regarding SES. Therefore, this study aimed to examine whether parental subjective SES and children's subjective social mobility separately moderated the relationship between family SES and children's executive function among 885 participants aged 9-13 years. The results showed that family SES was positively related to the three components of executive function (cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and working memory). Moreover, the relationship between SES and cognitive flexibility was weak among the children with a high level of subjective social mobility or those whose parents had high levels of subjective SES. Among children from families with economic hardship, subjective social mobility is a potential protective factor mitigating the negative effects of low family SES on their cognitive flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Ming
- Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
| | - Feng Zhang
- Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
| | - Ying Jiang
- Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
| | - Yi Ren
- Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
| | - Silin Huang
- Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
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Family Socioeconomic Status and Adolescents' Academic Achievement: The Moderating Roles of Subjective Social Mobility and Attention. J Youth Adolesc 2020; 49:1821-1834. [PMID: 32671624 DOI: 10.1007/s10964-020-01287-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Adolescents with low family socioeconomic status (SES) often have lower academic achievement than their peers with high family SES. However, less is known about the personal buffering mechanisms on the relationship between low family SES and academic achievement for youth. To address adolescents' academic achievement gap related to family SES, this study aimed to test whether family SES predicted adolescents' academic achievement and whether adolescents' subjective social mobility and attention moderated this relationship with longitudinal data. Valid participants included 827 adolescents (Mage = 12.30 years, range: 11-14 years, SD = 0.87, and 40.99% girls) from five township public schools in China. The results showed that family SES (comprising parents' education, parents' occupation, and family income) was positively correlated with adolescents' academic achievement (i.e., Chinese and math) when controlling for prior academic achievement. The positive associations between family SES and both Chinese and math achievement 9 months later were nonsignificant for adolescents with higher levels of subjective social mobility. In addition, the positive effect of family SES on Chinese achievement 9 months later was nonsignificant among adolescents with higher levels of attention. In conclusion, low family SES impairs adolescents' Chinese and math achievement, high levels of adolescents' subjective social mobility can buffer the adverse effects of low family SES on both Chinese and math achievement, and high levels of adolescents' attention can buffer the adverse effects of family SES on Chinese achievement but not on math achievement. These findings may emphasize the significance of developing differential interventions aimed at specific subject achievement for adolescents with low family SES.
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Destin M. Identity Research That Engages Contextual Forces to Reduce Socioeconomic Disparities in Education. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/0963721420901588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A growing amount of psychological research contributes to the understanding of complex social issues, including socioeconomic disparities in academic outcomes. At a basic level, several studies demonstrate the ways that socioeconomic resources and opportunities shape the identities of students during adolescence and young adulthood, particularly emphasizing how they imagine their lives in the future. These future identities, in turn, affect how students engage in school tasks and respond to academic difficulty. The implications of these basic insights connecting socioeconomic resources, identity, and academic outcomes are most meaningful when considered within various levels of social-contextual influence that surround students. A collection of studies demonstrates how peers, parents, teachers, and educational institutions as a whole can be targeted and leveraged to support student identities and outcomes. This deepened engagement with various levels of context can complement and advance the existing emphasis on individual-level intervention as a strategy to contribute to the progress of psychological science toward greater influence and significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mesmin Destin
- Department of Psychology, School of Education and Social Policy, and Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University
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