Attitudes on technological, social, and behavioral economic strategies to reduce cellphone use among teens while driving

Distracted and Impaired Driving Among U.S. Adolescents, 2019, USA

Distracted driving, the act of focusing on something else while operating a vehicle, is a significant health problem among adolescents. Although some studies have reported on prevalence among adolescents in the United States, limited studies have examined differences by sexual identity status. The purpose of the present study was to examine past 30-day distracted driving by sexual identity status among a large, national sample of adolescents ages 14 to 18 years. A secondary analysis was conducted on the 2019 Youth Risk Behavioral Surveillance System (YRBSS) data, and associations between distracted driving and demographics (e.g., biological sex, age, race/ethnicity) were assessed with weighted logistic regression analyses. A total of 13,590 adolescents ages 14 to 18 years were part of the final analytic sample. Twenty-three percent of adolescents reported distracted driving in the past 30 days. Compared with heterosexual adolescents, gay/lesbian (14.3%), bisexual (18.1%), and questioning (12.9%) adolescents reported lower distracted driving in the past 30 days. Findings through a health equity approach may inform harm reduction efforts and behavioral interventions.

Visual and cognitive demands of manual and voice-based driving mode implementations on smartphones

Mobile phone apps and operating systems are increasingly adopting driving mode functions that attempt to reduce driver visual and cognitive demand by limiting functionality, using larger buttons and icons, and adding voice-based interactions. The present study assessed the visual and cognitive demands and the subjective level of distraction from two driving mode implementations (voice or manual) on an Android™ mobile phone using Google Assistant™, compared to a typical mobile phone operating system experience. While driving on a test track, participants performed several trials of five tasks on each of three interfaces: A mobile operating system interface, a manual driving mode interface, and a voice driving mode interface. Visual demand was measured with eye-gaze recordings, cognitive load was measured with the detection response task, and a Likert scale was used to rate the perceived level of distraction. The voice driving mode resulted in the lowest visual attention demand and lowest subjective ratings of distraction. The manual driving mode condition also reduced visual demand and subjective ratings of distraction relative to the mobile operating system condition. The cognitive load results were inconsistent across the task and interaction mode conditions. Overall, the results of this study provide positive evidence in support of voice-based driving mode implementations for reducing visual demand and subjective levels of distraction from mobile devices while driving. Moreover, the results suggest that manual driving mode implementations also have the potential to reduce visual demand and subjective levels of distraction, relative to the mobile operating system condition.

Distracted Driving Behavior Among Adults in the Perambalur District: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background Distracted driving is a major public health concern. Distraction results in reduced speed control, lateral lane position, reduced situational awareness, and impaired response times to roadway hazards. Visual, cognitive, and manual distractions impair drivers in different ways. With the above background, this study was conducted with the objective of estimating the proportion of distracted driving behavior and its predictors among the adult population in the Perambalur district, Tamil Nadu, India, by using the Total Distracted Driving Scale. Materials and methods A cross-sectional study was conducted among 403 adults aged 18 years and above by convenience sampling technique in the Perambalur district for six months. A pretested, semi-structured proforma was used to collect data on socio-demographic characteristics such as age, sex, education, and occupation. To quantify distracted driving behavior, the Total Distracted Driving Scale was used. This scale contains seven questions about talking on the phone, five questions about texting, and five questions about using specific devices while driving. Data were entered into Microsoft Excel and analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 21. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the distracted driving behavior with respect to each variable, and to find out the significance, a corresponding statistical test was employed. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results The mean age of the study participants was 24.86 ± 10.63 years. More than half of the study subjects (52.4 percent) were females, and around 87.3 percent of them were Hindu by religion. Among the study participants, around 66.74 percent mentioned that they had used a cell phone while driving. Around 38 percent of the study participants admitted that they had been in or were near-crash circumstances during the past year. Around 87 percent of the study participants who had a crash or near-crash in the past year admitted that they had been distracted while driving. On primary analysis, religion of individuals and increased driving frequency had a statistically significant association with a history of distracted driving. Study participants who were using three- and four-wheelers and those who used cellphones while driving had a statistically significant association with a history of distracted driving. According to the regression, cell phone users are 3.915 times more distracted than those who do not use cellphones (p = 0.001). Subjects with a history of crashes or near-crashes were 56.96 times more distracted than those without a history (p < 0.001). Conclusion In the present study, three-fourths of the study population used a cell phone while driving. More than three-fourths of the study participants admitted that they had been in a crash or near-crash circumstances during the past year. Distracted driving was responsible for four-fifths of all crashes or near-collisions. Use of a cell phone while driving and a history of near-crashes have a higher risk of distraction than those who do not.

Deterring illegal smartphone use while driving: Are perceptions of risk information associated with the impact of informal sanctions?

Advertising campaigns have used threat appeals to increase the perceptions of risk associated with dangerous driving behaviours. Building on recent research that suggests increasing the pertinence of informal sanctions (sense of guilt, fear of peer disapproval, or fear of hurting oneself and others) decreases the likelihood of illegal smartphone engagement while driving, this study aimed to determine if perceptions of risk information, that is, how effective drivers believe the information is in deterring their illegal use, is associated with perceptions of informal sanctions. An online survey of 1027 Victorians who self-reported illegal smartphone use while driving asked participants to rate the personal deterrent effectiveness of five types of risks associated with illegal smartphone use while driving. A hierarchical linear regression model explored the associations between the most effective risks and each informal sanction. Female drivers were more likely than male drivers to experience guilt, fear of social loss and fear of physical loss when using their smartphones illegally. More frequent illegal smartphone engagement while driving was associated with decreased impact of informal sanctions. Female drivers were more likely than male drivers to perceive each risk as effective. The most effective piece of information was, "Contributes to 16% of Victorian road deaths and serious injuries annually"; it was also the least known (32.7% males, 26.7% females). This message, alongside, "Increases risk of a crash comparable to those associated with driving under the influence of alcohol or cannabis" and, "A 2 s glance at your phone while driving at 50 km/h effectively means driving blind for 27 m", were associated with stronger perceptions of guilt, fear of peer disapproval, or fear of hurting oneself and others when thinking about using a smartphone illegally while driving. These results suggest tailoring and targeting these specific risk information may be effective in deterring illegal smartphone use while driving.

"Like it's wrong, but it's not that wrong:" Exploring the normalization of risk-compensatory strategies among young drivers engaging in illegal smartphone use

INTRODUCTION

Young drivers are the most vulnerable road users and most likely to use a smartphone illegally while driving. Although when compared with drink-driving, attitudes to illegal smartphone risk are nearly identical, smartphone use among young drivers continues to increase.

METHOD

Four in-depth focus groups were conducted with 13 young (18-25 years) drivers to gain insight into their perceptions of the risks associated with the behavior. Our aim was to determine how drivers navigate that risk and if their behavior shapes and informs perceptions of norms.

RESULTS

Three key themes emerged: (a) participants perceived illegal smartphone use as commonplace, easy, and benign; (b) self-regulatory behaviors that compensate for risk are pervasive among illegal smartphone users; and (c) risk-compensation strategies rationalize risks and perceived norms, reducing the seriousness of transgression when compared with drink-driving. Young drivers rationalized their own use by comparing their selfregulatory smartphone and driving skills with those of "bad drivers," not law abiders. Practical Applications: These findings suggest that smartphone behaviors shape attitudes to risk, highlighting the importance for any countermeasure aimed at reducing illegal use to acknowledge how a young person's continued engagement in illegal smartphone use is justified by the dynamic composition of use, risk assessment and the perceived norms.

Support for legislative, technological, and organizational strategies to reduce cellphone use while driving: Psychological predictors and influences of language

OBJECTIVE

A large body of research has established that cellphone use while driving (CUWD) is common and dangerous. However, little research has been conducted about how people react psychologically to various distraction-reduction strategies and, ultimately, support or do not support them. Understanding support for reduction is important for predicting use of technological solutions and compliance with laws and for improving communication and education about the risks of CUWD.

METHODS

We measured support for a variety of legislative, technological, and organizational strategies to reduce CUWD in an online sample of American drivers (N = 648). We also developed evidence-based communication techniques, describing strategies in terms of benefits vs. costs or using freedom-invoking vs. freedom-reducing language to assess what would influence support.

RESULTS

Support for CUWD reduction was generally high. It was predicted by driver characteristics and beliefs. For example, drivers who supported reducing CUWD more also had lower CUWD reactance, greater anti-CUWD beliefs, higher personal risk perceptions of CUWD, and greater self-reported distracted driving. Age and perceived ability to drive distracted did not predict overall support. However, two strategies that allow for handsfree phone use were supported more by people who engaged in more CUWD, perceived they had greater ability to CUWD, perceived more benefits to CUWD, had more positive affect to cellphones, and were younger. Communication techniques also influenced support. Specifically, the same strategy was supported more when described using benefits and permissive language instead of costs and restrictive language.

CONCLUSIONS

Most respondents supported strategies to reduce CUWD, and beliefs about risks and benefits predicted this snupport. Reactance to CUWD messaging emerged as a key predictor of lower support (and of greater self-reported distracted driving), indicating that it could be an important variable to consider when designing strategies to reduce CUWD. When targeting people resistant to quitting CUWD entirely, communicators could recommend a switch to handsfree use. Communicators who emphasize benefits and use permissive language also may increase support for CUWD reduction.

Challenges of enforcing cellphone use while driving laws among police in the USA: a cross-sectional analysis

OBJECTIVES

Research suggests that cellphone use while driving laws may be difficult for police to enforce in the USA, but this is unknown. A national survey of police officers was conducted to determine whether barriers to enforcing these laws exist, what aspects of laws make them easier to enforce and ways to discourage the behaviour among drivers.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional survey.

SETTING

USA.

PARTICIPANTS

Individuals >18 years of age employed as a law enforcement officer from all 50 states were recruited via convenience sampling through multiple modalities from November 2019 to April 2020. Officers (N=353) from 31 states participated.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Descriptive statistics and multi-level logistic regression analyses were run to assess the responses.

RESULTS

The most common barriers to enforcing texting bans (ie, the most prevalent law) were drivers concealing their phone use (78%) and the officer not being able to determine what the driver was doing on their phone (65%). If a universal hand-held cellphone ban was in effect in their state, officers were 77% less likely (adjusted OR=0.23; 95% CI 0.08 to 0.70) to report that a texting ban was difficult to adjudicate. The majority of officers (86%) agreed that having one general law that prohibits any type of hand-held cellphone use would aid with enforcement, and that laws must be a primary offence (87%), and be applicable to all licensed drivers (91%). Most officers felt that driver education is needed.

CONCLUSIONS

While numerous barriers to enforcement were identified, opportunities exist to improve current legislation to aid enforcement efforts and to prevent the behaviour among drivers.

Driving contradictions: behaviors and attitudes regarding handheld and hands-free cellphone use while driving among young drivers

Background

Cellphone use while driving (CUWD) is a frequent source of distraction for young drivers. These distractions commonly lead to motor vehicle crashes and, in some cases, death. Crash risk differs depending on if the driver is engaging in handheld or hands-free CUWD. This pilot study sought to investigate the differences between handheld versus hands-free CUWD behaviors in younger drivers and the attitudes and social norms that inform them.

Methods

Young drivers (mean age: 19.6 years, standard deviation: 0.8 years) were recruited from a large Midwestern city in the United States as part of a pilot study. The 62 enrolled drivers (51 females, 43 non-Hispanic white) completed an online survey measuring behavioral frequencies, attitudes, and social norms regarding talking on the phone, sending messages, and reading messages. These cross-sectional data were then categorized and used for a descriptive analysis.

Results

The majority of young drivers reported participating in some form of handheld CUWD, with reading messages being the most popular (95%). Only 43% of participants used hands-free technology for sending messages and 30% for reading messages, while half reported not using the technology at all. Whereas handheld messaging behaviors were viewed negatively by the participants, they were unsure of the impact on their driving ability and the legality surrounding hands-free messaging behaviors.

Conclusions

Handheld CUWD behaviors were more popular among young drivers compared to hands-free CUWD. Further, even though young drivers understood handheld cellphone use while driving is unsafe, they engaged in it anyway. The findings of this pilot study highlight the importance of better educational initiatives and optimizing hands-free interventions for young driver use cases.

Initial Testing of a Web-Based Intervention to Reduce Adolescent Driver Inattention: A Randomized Controlled Trial

INTRODUCTION

Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of adolescent death. Inattention to the roadway contributes to crash risk. The objective of this study was to deploy an initial study of a web-based intervention (Let's Choose Ourselves) designed to improve adolescent driver attention to the roadway.

METHODS

We used a randomized controlled trial design in a sample of adolescent drivers to test if a web-based intervention decreased cell phone engagement in driving simulation at 3 months as compared with controls. As secondary hypotheses, we tested if the intervention increased the use of peer passengers to manage distractions and decreased eyes off the forward roadway in driving simulation and decreased self-reported risky driving behaviors. Adolescents, aged 16-17 years, licensed for ≤90 days were randomized to Let's Choose Ourselves with distractions in the simulator protocol at baseline, Let's Choose Ourselves with no distractions, an attention control intervention on healthy eating with distractions, or attention control with no distractions. We used Poisson regression modeling to test the primary and secondary hypotheses.

RESULTS

The trial included 60 adolescents (66.7% female, 78.3% non-Hispanic white subjects, mean age 16.8 years, licensed 50.8 days). In Poisson regression, controlling for sex, we found no significant effects of Let's Choose Ourselves on primary or secondary outcomes. However, there was a significant effect of visit on self-report outcomes, with self-reported distracted driving behaviors increasing over time.

DISCUSSION

Although there were no significant effects of Let's Choose Ourselves, self-reported risky driving behaviors increased over time. Further investigation of the relationship between driving experience and increasing inattention to the road in adolescents is warranted.

"It is frustrating to not have control even though I know it's not legal!": A mixed-methods investigation on applications to prevent mobile phone use while driving

Mobile phone distracted driving is a major risk factor for crashes. However, this behaviour has been increasing in recent years. Effective enforcement of mobile phone bans while driving faces several obstacles; as such, it is important to consider additional countermeasures. Applications designed to prevent distracted driving are a promising solution, yet more research is needed that examines their effectiveness in reducing dangerous phone use while driving behaviours. Additionally, these applications are voluntary in nature; therefore, an understanding of drivers' perceptions of the applications is necessary to determine how to improve uptake. A mixed methods design was utilised to examine these factors in a comprehensive manner. A total of 40 participants used the smartphone application "Do Not Disturb While Driving" for iOS phone operating systems or "Android Auto" for Android phone operating systems for approximately one week and completed three diary entries reporting on their experience. Two questionnaires that examined phone use while driving behaviours were also administered to participants; one before and one after completing the study. The quantitative results found that engagement in 1) visual-manual, 2) cognitive-auditory and 3) music mobile phone interactions significantly decreased while using the application. Distraction engagement and mental workload while driving also significantly decreased while using the application. The qualitative results identified a number of areas of improvement that need to be addressed, e.g. activation of the application and Bluetooth connection reliability. The features that required improvement presented an obstacle for effective use of the applications, and in some cases resulted in drivers deciding to stop using the application. Positive perceptions of the application were associated with the experiences of the application functioning appropriately and activating automatically. These results show that applications designed for voluntary use to prevent mobile phone distracted driving are a promising countermeasure, although current applications require several improvements.

Portable System for Monitoring and Controlling Driver Behavior and the Use of a Mobile Phone While Driving

There is an utmost requirement for technology to control a driver’s phone while driving, which will prevent the driver from being distracted and thus saving the driver’s and passenger’s lives. Information from recent studies has shown that 70% of the young and aware drivers are used to texting while driving. There are many different technologies used to control mobile phones while driving, including electronic device control, global positioning system (GPS), on-board diagnostics (OBD)-II-based devices, mobile phone applications or apps, etc. These devices acquire the vehicle information such as the car speed and use the information to control the driver’s phone such as preventing them from making or receiving calls at specific speed limits. The information from the devices is interfaced via Bluetooth and can later be used to control mobile phone applications. The main aim of this paper is to propose the design of a portable system for monitoring the use of a mobile phone while driving and for controlling a driver’s mobile phone, if necessary, when the vehicle reaches a specific speed limit (>10 km/h). A paper-based self-reported questionnaire survey was carried out among 600 teenage drivers from different nationalities to see the driving behavior of young drivers in Qatar. Finally, a mobile application was developed to monitor the mobile usage of a driver and an OBD-II module-based portable system was designed to acquire data from the vehicle to identify drivers’ behavior with respect to phone usage, sudden lane changes, and abrupt breaking/sharp speeding. This information was used in a mobile application to control the driver’s mobile usage as well as to report the driving behavior while driving. The application of such a system can significantly improve drivers’ behavior all over the world.

Threat appeals reduce impulsive decision making associated with texting while driving: A behavioral economic approach

The primary purpose of the present study was to examine the effectiveness of threat appeals in influencing impulsive decision making associated with texting while driving. The participants in the treatment group were exposed to a threatening message about the danger of texting while driving, whereas those in the control group were exposed to a non-threatening message. Following the exposure to either message, the participants completed a delay-discounting task that assessed the degree of impulsive decision making in a hypothetical texting-while-driving scenario. A comparison between the groups revealed that the threat appeals reduced the degree of impulsive decision making associated with texting while driving. In addition, the threat appeals led to greater anticipated regret from texting while driving, less favorable attitudes toward texting while driving, and decreased intentions to text while driving in the future in the treatment group. These results suggest that video-based threat appeals are promising intervention strategies for the public health challenge of texting while driving. Implications from the behavioral economic perspective are discussed.

Novel Smartphone-Based Measures of Cell Phone Use While Driving in a Sample of Newly Licensed Adolescent Drivers

BACKGROUND

Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of adolescent death. Cell phone use while driving is a contributor to adolescent motor vehicle crash risk. Objective and directly observable measures of cell phone use while driving are needed to implement interventions aimed at reducing cell phone-related crash risk.

AIMS

To describe novel smartphone-based measures of cell phone use while driving in a sample of newly licensed male and female adolescent drivers.

METHODS

Newly licensed adolescents in Pennsylvania installed a windshield-mounted device that pairs with a smartphone application to collect data on cell phone use while driving over 2 weeks during June 2016-October 2016. Descriptive statistics, independent t tests, and Wilcoxin Mann-Whitney U test were used to characterize handheld cell phone use ("unlock") and call time while accounting for driving exposure.

RESULTS

Data from 16 adolescents (50% male) resulted in 5,624 miles in 705 trips, 964 cell phone unlocks, and 146.22 minutes of call time. Participants had a mean of 23.96 unlocks/100 miles ( SD = 22.97), 1.23 unlocks/trip ( SD = 0.96), and 4.87 unlocks/hour driven ( SD = 3.93). Males had significantly more unlocks/100 miles, unlocks at speed >25 mph/100 miles, unlocks/hour driven, and unlocks at speed > 25 mph/hour driven ( p < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Smartphone-based applications are an innovative means by which to collect continuous data on cell phone use while driving that can be used to better understand and intervene on this frequent behavior in newly licensed adolescent drivers.

Adolescents' perspectives on distracted driving legislation

PURPOSE

Distracted driving is a growing global epidemic, with adolescent drivers reporting frequent engagement in distracted driving behaviors. Public health initiatives and legislative efforts designed to decrease the prevalence of these unwanted driving behaviors have demonstrated small, but significant reductions in crash risk. Non-compliance is a known problem among drivers of all ages, but may be especially problematic for novice, adolescent drivers. Using a construct from the Health Belief Model, the relations between demographic factors, perceived threat to safety, and peer influences were investigated with adolescents' support for three types of distracted driving legislation regarding: (a) reading or sending text messages/emails while driving; (b) hand-held cell phone use while driving; and (c) using non-driving-related-in-vehicle (NDIV) technology while driving. Investigating adolescents' perceptions provides an opportunity to understand distracted driving enforcement and legislation.

METHODS

Three hundred and seventy-nine adolescents aged 15-19 (M = 16.12, SD = 0.56) were recruited from public high schools. Demographics, perceptions, and support regarding distracted driving were assessed using self-report surveys. Statistical analyses included bivariate correlations and adjusted odds ratios to investigate influences of adolescent support for distracted driving legislation.

RESULTS

Female adolescents were at 2 times greater odds of supporting a law against texting/emailing while driving compared to male adolescents. Greater perceived threat to safety was associated with all three types of distracted driving legislation (aOR = 1.10, 1.33). Minimal association was found with peer influences.

CONCLUSIONS

Perceived threat to safety and gender were associated with legislative support in adolescents. Practical application: Interventions and public health campaigns that incorporate elements related to perceived threat may be more successful with female adolescent drivers than male adolescents. Future experimental research will help to determine what factors affect adolescents' perspectives on distracted driving to promote compliance with related legislation.

Texting/Emailing While Driving Among High School Students in 35 States, United States, 2015

PURPOSE

Determine the prevalence and explore individual- and state-level factors associated with texting/emailing while driving (TWD) among adolescent drivers in the United States.

METHODS

Data from 35 states that administered the 2015 state Youth Risk Behavior Survey were analyzed. We used Poisson regression models with robust error variance to estimate prevalence ratios (PRs) for TWD.

RESULTS

Among the 101,397 high school students aged ≥ 14 years who had driven a vehicle during the past 30 days, 38% reported TWD at least once. TWD prevalence ranged from 26% in Maryland to 64% in South Dakota. TWD prevalence was higher in states with a lower minimum learner's permit age and in states where a larger percentage of students drove. Multivariable analyses revealed that the likelihood of TWD increased substantially with age, and white students were more likely to engage in TWD than students of all other races/ethnicities. Infrequent seatbelt users were 21% more likely to engage in TWD compared with frequent seatbelt users (adjusted PR = 1.21, 95% confidence interval: 1.16-1.26), and students who reported drinking and driving were almost twice as likely to TWD as compared to students who did not (adjusted PR = 1.91, 95% confidence interval: 1.79-2.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Prevalence of TWD among US high school students varied by more than two-fold across states. TWD prevalence was higher in states with lower minimum learner's permit ages and in states where a larger percentage of students drove. Older age, white race/ethnicity, and other risky driving behaviors were associated with TWD.