Characterization of airborne particles from cleaning sprays and their corresponding respiratory deposition fractions

A generic approach to estimate airborne concentrations of substances released by indoor spray processes using a deterministic 2-box model

Sprays are used both in workplace and consumer settings. Although spraying has advantages, such as uniform distribution of substances on surfaces in a highly efficient manner, it is often associated with a high inhalation burden. For an adequate risk assessment, this exposure has to be reliably quantified. Exposure models of varying complexity are available, which are applicable to spray applications. However, a need for improvement has been identified. In this contribution, a simple 2-box approach is suggested for the assessment of the time-weighted averaged exposure concentration (TWA) using a minimum of input data. At the moment, the model is restricted to binary spray liquids composed of a non-volatile fraction and volatile solvents. The model output can be refined by introducing correction factors based on the classification and categorization of two key parameters, the droplet size class and the vapor pressure class of the solvent, or by using a data set of experimentally determined airborne release fractions related to the used spray equipment. A comparison of model results with measured data collected at real workplaces showed that this simple model based on readily available input parameters is very useful for screening purposes. The generic 2-box spray model without refinement overestimates the measurements of the considered scenarios in approximately 50% of the cases by more than a factor of 100. The generic 2-box model performs better for room spraying than for surface spraying, as the airborne fraction in the latter case is clearly overestimated. This conservatism of the prediction was significantly reduced when correction factors or experimentally determined airborne release fractions were used in addition to the generic input parameters. The resulting predictions still overestimate the exposure (ratio tool estimate to measured TWA > 10) or they are accurate (ratio 0.5-10). If the available information on boundary conditions (application type, equipment) does not justify the usage of airborne release fraction, room spraying should be used resulting in the highest exposure estimate. The model scope may be extended to (semi)volatile substances. However, acceptance may be compromised by the limited availability of measured data for this group of substances and thus may have limited potency to evaluate the model prediction.

Volatile organic compounds emitted by conventional and "green" cleaning products in the U.S. market

Exposure to cleaning products has been associated with harm to the respiratory system, neurotoxicity, harm to the reproductive system, and elevated risk of cancer, with greatest adverse impacts for workers exposed in an occupational setting. Social and consumer interest in cleaning products that are safer for health created a market category of "green" products defined here as products advertised as healthier, non-toxic, or free from harmful chemicals as well as products with a third-party certification for safety or environmental features. In the present study we examined the air quality impacts of cleaning products and air fresheners, measuring the number, concentrations, and emission factors of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in an air chamber following product application. Across seven common product categories, 30 products were tested overall including 14 conventional, 9 identified as "green" with fragrance, and 7 identified as "green" and fragrance-free. A total of 530 unique VOCs were quantified with 205 additional VOCs detected below the limits of quantification. Of the quantifiable VOCs, 193 were considered hazardous according to either the California's Department of Toxic Substances Control Candidate Chemicals List or the European Chemical Agency's Classification and Labeling Inventory. The total concentration of VOCs and total emission factors across all products with detections ranged from below limits of detection to 18,708 μg/m3, 38,035 μg/g product and 3803 μg/application. Greater total concentration, total emission factors, and numbers of VOCs were generally observed in conventional cleaning products compared to products identified as "green", particularly compared to fragrance-free products. A hazard index approach was utilized to assess relative risk from measured VOC emissions. The five products with the highest hazard indices were conventional products with emissions of 2-butoxyethanol, isopropanol, toluene and chloroform. Overall, this analysis suggests that the use of "green" cleaning products, especially fragrance-free products, may reduce exposure to VOC emissions.

Safety data sheets as an information pathway on hazards of occupationally used cleaning agents

To investigate consistency and accessibility of asthma and skin allergy hazard information in safety data sheets (SDSs) for cleaning agents on the Swedish market, we compiled a database of 504 SDSs and 351 therein declared ingredients. Labelling of products was compared to that of ingredients according to harmonised classification. For each ingredient, also notified classification and three additional sources on sensitising properties were compared. Product labelling most frequently indicated corrosion and irritation hazards. Only 3% of products were labelled as skin sensitisers and none as asthmagens. According to harmonised classification, 9% of products contained skin sensitisers, using other information sources increased the number to 46%. While 2% of products contained respiratory sensitisers according to harmonised classification, the number increased to 17% when using other information sources. Furthermore, sensitisers were declared across several sections of the SDSs, hampering easy access of such information. In conclusion, there are inconsistencies in hazard identification of cleaning agents and their ingredients. Hence, SDSs may not altogether fulfil its hazard information role. Improved criteria for identifying sensitisers and respiratory irritants are warranted. Additionally, we argue that all ingredients should be listed in section 3 regardless of concentration, to facilitate access of information about sensitising properties.

Effects of cleaning spray use on eyes, airways, and ergonomic load

BACKGROUND

Cleaning workers are exposed to chemicals and high physical workload, commonly resulting in airway problems and pain. In this study the response in the upper airways and the physical workload following airborne and ergonomic exposure of cleaning spray was investigated.

METHODS

A survey was answered by professional cleaning workers to investigate their use of cleaning sprays and the perceived effects on eyes, airways and musculoskeletal pain. A human chamber exposure study was then conducted with 11 professional cleaning workers and 8 non-professional cleaning workers to investigate the airborne exposure, acute effects on eyes and airways, and physical load during cleaning with sprays, foam application and microfiber cloths premoistened with water. All cleaning products used were bleach, chlorine, and ammonia free. The medical assessment included eye and airway parameters, inflammatory markers in blood and nasal lavage, as well as technical recordings of the physical workload.

RESULTS

A high frequency of spray use (77%) was found among the 225 professional cleaning workers that answered the survey. Based on the survey, there was an eight times higher risk (p < 0.001) of self-experienced symptoms (including symptoms in the nose, eyes and throat, coughing or difficulty breathing) when they used sprays compared to when they cleaned with other methods. During the chamber study, when switching from spray to foam, the airborne particle and volatile organic compound (VOC) concentrations showed a decrease by 7 and 2.5 times, respectively. For the whole group, the peak nasal inspiratory flow decreased (-10.9 L/min, p = 0.01) during spray use compared to using only water-premoistened microfiber cloths. These effects were lower during foam use (-4.7 L/min, p = 0.19). The technical recordings showed a high physical workload regardless of cleaning with spray or with water.

CONCLUSION

Switching from a spraying to a foaming nozzle decreases the exposure of both airborne particles and VOCs, and thereby reduces eye and airway effects, and does not increase the ergonomic load. If the use of cleaning products tested in this study, i.e. bleach, chlorine, and ammonia free, cannot be avoided, foam application is preferable to spray application to improve the occupational environment.

Household use of green and homemade cleaning products, wipe application mode, and asthma among French adults from the CONSTANCES cohort

While exposure to irritant and sprayed cleaning products at home is known to have a harmful role in asthma, the potential health effect of other categories or forms has not been investigated. We studied the associations of household use of cleaning products, including green, homemade products, and disinfecting wipes, with asthma based on data from the large French population-based CONSTANCES cohort. Participants completed standardized questionnaires on respiratory health and household use of cleaning products. Cross-sectional associations of cleaning products with current asthma, adjusted for gender, age, smoking status, BMI, and educational level, were evaluated by logistic regressions. Analyses were conducted in 41 570 participants (mean age: 47 years, 56% women, weekly use of the six specific products/forms studied varied from 11% to 37%). Weekly use of irritants (OR = 1.23 [1.13-1.35]), scented (OR = 1.15 [1.06-1.26]), green (OR = 1.09 [1.00-1.20]), and homemade products (OR = 1.19 [1.06-1.34]), as well as sprays (OR = 1.18 [1.08-1.29]), disinfecting wipes (OR = 1.21 [1.09-1.34]) were significantly associated with asthma, with significant trends according to the frequency of use. When they were not co-used with irritants/sprays, associations were reduced and persisted only for disinfecting wipes. Weekly use of disinfecting wipes at home was associated with current asthma, but fewer risks were observed for the use of green and homemade products.

Household Cleaning and Poor Asthma Control Among Elderly Women

BACKGROUND

Asthma control is suboptimal in nearly half of adults with asthma. Household exposure to disinfectants and cleaning products (DCP) has been associated with adverse respiratory effects, but data on their association with asthma control are scant.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the association between household use of DCP and asthma control in a large cohort of French elderly women.

METHODS

We used data from a case-control study on asthma (2011-2013) nested in the E3N cohort. Among 3023 women with current asthma, asthma control was defined by the Asthma Control Test (ACT). We used a standardized questionnaire to assess the frequency of cleaning tasks and DCP use. We also identified household cleaning patterns using a clustering approach. Associations between DCP and ACT were adjusted for age, smoking status, body mass index, and education.

RESULTS

Data on ACT and DCP use were available for 2223 women (70 ± 6 years old). Asthma was controlled (ACT = 25), partly controlled (ACT = 20-24), and poorly controlled (ACT ≤ 19) in 29%, 46%, and 25% of the participants, respectively. Weekly use of sprays and chemicals was associated with poorly controlled asthma (odds ratio [95% confidence interval]: 1 spray: 1.31 [0.94-1.84], ≥2 sprays: 1.65 [1.07-2.53], P trend: .01; 1 chemical: 1.24 [0.94-1.64], ≥2 chemicals: 1.47 [1.03-2.09], P trend: .02). Risk for poor asthma control increased with the patterns "very frequent use of products" (1.74 [1.13-2.70]) and "infrequent cleaning tasks and intermediate use of products" (1.62 [1.05-2.51]).

CONCLUSION

Regular use of DCP may contribute to poor asthma control in elderly women. Limiting their use may help improve asthma management.

Cleaners and airway diseases

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Evidence for adverse respiratory effects of occupational exposure to disinfectants and cleaning products (DCPs) has grown in the last two decades. The relationship between DCPs and asthma is well documented but questions remain regarding specific causal agents. Beyond asthma, associations between DCPs and COPD or chronic rhinitis are plausible and have been examined recently. The purpose of this review is to summarize recent advances on the effect of occupational exposure to DCP and chronic airway diseases.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent epidemiological studies have often focused on healthcare workers and are characterized by efforts to improve assessment of exposure to specific DCPs. Despite increasing knowledge on the effect of DCPs on asthma, the burden of work-related asthma caused by DCPs has not decreased in the past decade, emphasizing the need to strengthen prevention efforts. Novel data suggest an association between occupational exposure to DCPs and other chronic airway diseases, such as rhinitis, COPD, and poor lung function.

SUMMARY

Epidemiological and experimental data showed that many chemicals contained in DCPs are likely to cause airway damage, indicating that prevention strategies should target multiple products. Further research is needed to evaluate the impact of DCP exposure on occupational airway diseases beyond asthma.

Assessment of urban air pollution related to potential nanoparticle emission from photocatalytic pavements

The main objective was to evaluate whether wearing and weathering of nanofunctionalized photocatalytic pavement in real urban environment can lead to undesirable emission of potentially toxic nanoparticle aerosols in urban air. The photocatalytic material was thoroughly tested before its application for conformity criteria in terms of photocatalytic effectiveness, intrinsic performance and undesired secondary effects, and then applied on a pilot scale in downtown Madrid. The aerosol monitoring on the pilot street before the coating applications as well as on the neighbouring streets during 10 months was used as a benchmark for evaluation of spatial and temporal variations. Analysis of the experimental data did not reveal any statistically significant variations in the aerosol concentrations on the pilot street in comparison with the benchmark. The concentration of Ti-containing particles was assessed by aerosol sampling and yielded values below 10 cm^-3 that is more than three orders of magnitude below the toxicological limits. A theoretical model was developed to assess the upper bound of nanoparticle aerosol concentration in air. These findings indicated that photocatalytic pavement materials, which comply with conformity criteria under laboratory tests, can have low impact on the particulate contamination of urban air.

Physicochemical characteristics of colloidal nanomaterial suspensions and aerosolized particulates from nano-enabled consumer spray products

Physicochemical properties between colloidal engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) and aerosols released from consumer spray products were characterized. A dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) were used to evaluate the suspended ENMs in the products. Direct-reading instruments, TEM, and ICP-MS were used to characterize the properties of aerosolized ENMs. The aerosolized organic compounds with ENMs were assumed to be vaporized for a short time after spraying. The median diameter of ENMs in product solutions measured by DLS was about 200-350 nm, while individual particle was confirmed from 3 to 50 nm by TEM. The size of aerosolized ENMs was ranged from 7 to 44 nm, and their aggregates were about 100-1000 nm in near distance. Some inorganic substances including raw nanomaterials were also found in the aerosol. The particles released from the propellant sprays were identified in far distance, while they were not found in far distance when pump sprays were used. The number concentration from the propellant sprays increased up to 6000 particles/cm³ /g at near distance and dispersed to far distance, while the most of droplets emitted from pump sprays were settled down near sprayer's location. We found other metals besides labeled ENMs are included in each product and the characteristics of the particles are different when they are sprayed.