Directed forgetting of negative performed actions is difficult: A behavioural study

Item-method directed forgetting and perceived truth of news headlines

Research on item-method directed forgetting (IMDF) suggests that memories can be voluntarily forgotten. IMDF is however usually examined with relatively simple study materials, such as single words or pictures. In the present study, we examined voluntary forgetting of news headlines from (presumably) untrustworthy sources. Experiment 1 found intact IMDF when to-be-forgotten headlines were characterised as untrustworthy and to-be-remembered headlines were characterised as trustworthy. Experiment 2 separated remember/forget cues and trustworthiness prompts. Forget cues alone had a large effect on memory, but only a small reducing effect on perceived truth. In contrast, trustworthiness prompts alone had essentially no effect on memory, but a large effect on perceived truth. Finally, Experiment 3 fully crossed forget/remember cues and trustworthiness prompts, revealing that forget cues can reduce memory irrespective of whether headlines are characterised as trustworthy or untrustworthy. Moreover, forget cues may bias source attributions, which can explain their small reducing effect on perceived truth. Overall, this work suggests that news headlines can be voluntarily forgotten. At least when people are motivated to forget information from untrustworthy sources, such forgetting may be helpful for curtailing the spread of false information.

The Role of Motor Representation in Enactment Effect of Action Memory

Noun-verb phrases are more efficiently remembered when they are enacted during learning than when they are only verbally studied, a phenomenon known as the enactment effect. While studies have debated whether motor information is key to this effect, our study explores whether the organization of motor information can support the enactment effect. We used the retrieval-practice paradigm to induce retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF). In Experiment 1, we found an RIF effect of categorization into physical motor properties (e.g., rotation-motor category), which was significantly stronger during enactment learning. In Experiment 2, we also found an RIF effect of categorization into physical motor properties with additional imagery features (e.g., the hand-physical and round-object category), but there was no significant difference between enactment learning and verbal learning. These findings suggest that motor information is fundamental to the enactment effect, but it is not primarily assimilated, even in the presence of various types of information, in the processing of action memory. We discuss these findings in the context of multimodal theory and episodic integration theory.

Emotional memories are (usually) harder to forget: A meta-analysis of the item-method directed forgetting literature

The current meta-analysis explored whether emotional memories are less susceptible to item-method directed forgetting than neutral memories. Basic analyses revealed superior memory for remember (R) than forget (F) items in both the neutral, M = 19.6%, CI_95% [16.1, 23.1], and the emotional, M = 15.1%, CI_95% [12.4, 17.7], conditions. Directed forgetting in either valence condition was larger for (a) words than for other stimuli; (b) recall than recognition tests; (c) studies that used recall prior to recognition testing; (d) shorter lists; and (e) studies that included buffer items. Direct comparison of the magnitude of the directed forgetting effect across neutral and emotional conditions within studies revealed relatively diminished directed forgetting of emotional items compared to neutral items, with an average difference of 4.2%, CI_95% [2.0, 6.4]. However, the nature of this finding varied broadly across studies, meaning that whether - and to what degree - emotional memories are more resilient than neutral memories likely depends on the methodological features of the study in question. Moderator analyses revealed larger differences (a) in studies for which the emotional items were more arousing than the neutral items, and (b) when buffer items were included. Together, these findings suggest that emotional memories are often more resilient to intentional forgetting than neutral memories, although further research is necessary to characterize the circumstances under which these differences emerge.

Integrative representation of semantic and motor information underlies the enactment effect in memory for actions

The present study adopted the retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) effect to determine whether semantic representation might favour the enactment effect, in which noun-verb phrases are remembered better by enacting during learning (subject-performed tasks, SPTs) than by studying verbally (verbal tasks, VTs). Experiment 1 controlled the semantic category to investigate the RIF effect in SPT vs. VT conditions. The RIF effect was similar irrespective of the mode of encoding (SPT vs.VT), indicating that semantic representation was not the main factor for favouring the enactment effect. Furthermore, Experiment 2 added motor physical properties to simultaneously control the semantic category and one category by motor features. The results of Experiment 2 showed stronger cooperative representation of semantic and motor information under the VT condition, indicating that the processing of action memory may be conceptual.

The Effects of Language and Semantic Repetition on the Enactment Effect of Action Memory

Humans exhibit enhanced memory performance when information is encoded by physically enacting it, as opposed to passively reading or hearing the same information; an effect referred to as "enactment effect." The present study explored the effects of language (native vs. non-native) and semantic repetition (repeated vs. non-repeated) on the enactment effect in action memory. Forty-eight subjects learned action phrases either by enacting or by reading the items. Results showed (i) better memory for enacted phrases, (ii) better memory for non-native repeated phrases that were only read, (iii) no difference in memory between repeated and non-repeated phrases that were enacted, and (iv) that semantic repetition affected memory of phrases that were read but not of those that were enacted. Partly in line with the multimodal theory, findings support that enacting action phrases can enhance item-specific processing and that this is insensitive to cognitive strategies like semantic repetition.

How do word frequency and memory task influence directed forgetting: An ERP study

In daily life, it is important either to remember sometimes or to intentionally forget on other occasions. The issue of forgetting following instructions (i.e. directed forgetting, DF) has been broadly studied; however, whether the frequency of contents would matter in DF remains unclear, and the understanding of its neural mechanism in both circumstances of item memory and source memory requires improvement in depth. For these purposes, the current study manipulated word frequency and memory task to investigate relevant behavioral features and neural activities of DF. Adopting event-related potential (ERP) technique, this study applied two-character Chinese words of two types of word frequency (high vs low) in the item-method DF paradigm. During encoding, we found that the increased frontal positivity, an index of active inhibition, was regulated by both word frequency and memory task, while the enhanced parietal positivity reflecting selective rehearsal didn't fluctuate across conditions. In the course of test, three ERP old/new effects were identified: the familiarity-based FN400 and the recollection-driven LPC were both modulated by word frequency and memory task, but the right frontal old/new effect was significant solely in source memory; also, these effects provided compelling evidence for the influences of word frequency and memory task on DF. Our results reinforce the differentiation between absolute familiarity and relative familiarity in memory, reveal their sensitivity to DF, and also support the dual-process interpretation. Implications are made to examine more influential factors for future research.

Effect of Emotion and Type of Encoding on Memory for Actions: Verbal and Subject-Performed Tasks

BACKGROUND

The present study examines whether the interaction between emotion and the enactment effect (body involvement) improves memory in people with Alzheimer disease (AD).

METHODS

Two experiments with drawings of actions were conducted, in which two types of encoding were used: motor and verbal. In experiment 1, with 13 AD patients and 13 older healthy adults, the encoding was incidental. In experiment 2, with 17 mild AD patients and 21 older healthy adults, it was intentional.

RESULTS

In experiment 1, no effect of enactment or emotion was observed in the AD patients. In experiment 2, effects of enactment and emotion (better recall for negative actions) were observed in the AD patients. This pattern of results was also observed in the elderly control adults in both experiments.

CONCLUSION

These results confirm effects observed in normal ageing and indicate a more subtle effect on AD.