Chemical and toxicological alterations of zearalenone under ozone treatment

Zearalenone degrading enzyme evolution to increase the hydrolysis efficiency under acidic conditions by the rational design

Based on rational design, zearalenone degrading enzyme was evolved to improve the hydrolysis efficiency under acidic conditions. At pH 4.2 and 37 °C, the activity of the zearalenone degrading enzyme evolved with 8 mutation sites increased from 7.69 U/mg to 38.67 U/mg. Km of the evolved zearalenone degrading enzyme decreased from 283.61 μM to 75.33 μM. The evolved zearalenone degrading enzyme was found to effectively degrade zearalenone in pig stomach chyme. Molecular docking revealed an increase in the number of hydrogen bonds and π-sigma interactions between the evolved zearalenone degrading enzyme and zearalenone. The evolved zearalenone degrading enzyme was valuable for hydrolyzing zearalenone under acidic conditions.

Mutation, food-grade expression, and characterization of a lactonase for zearalenone degradation

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin that causes serious threats to human health. People are exposed to ZEN contamination externally and internally through many ways, while environmental-friendly strategies for efficient elimination of ZEN are urgently needed worldwide. Previous studies revealed that the lactonase Zhd101 from Clonostachys rosea can hydrolyze ZEN to low toxicity compounds. In this work, the enzyme Zhd101 was conducted with combinational mutations to enhance its application properties. The optimal mutant (V153H-V158F), named Zhd101.1, was selected and introduced into the food-grade recombinant yeast strain Kluyveromyces lactis GG799(pKLAC1-Zhd101.1), followed by induced expression and secretion into the supernatant. The enzymatic properties of this mutant were extensively examined, revealing a 1.1-fold increase in specific activity, as well as improved thermostability and pH stability, compared to the wild-type enzyme. The ZEN degradation tests and the reaction parameters optimization were carried out in both solutions and the ZEN-contaminated corns, using the fermentation supernatants of the food-grade yeast strain. Results showed that the degradation rates for ZEN by fermentation supernatants reached 96.9% under optimal reaction conditions and 74.6% in corn samples, respectively. These new results are a useful reference to zearalenone biodegradation technologies and indicated that the mutant enzyme Zhd101.1 has potential to be used in food and feed industries. KEY POINTS: • Mutated lactonase showed 1.1-fold activity, better pH stability than the wild type. • The strain K. lactis GG799(pKLAC1-Zhd101.1) and the mutant Zhd101.1 are food-grade. • ZEN degradation rates by supernatants reached 96.9% in solution and 74.6% in corns.

Kinetics, Thermodynamics and Mechanism of Enzymatic Degradation of Zearalenone in Degummed Corn Oil

The kinetics and thermodynamics of the enzymatic degradation of zearalenone (ZEN) in degummed corn oil were investigated by analyzing the impacts of temperature, pH, ZEN hydrolase dosage and ZEN concentration on the initial reaction rate. The kinetic study found that the maximum reaction rate was 0.97 μmol × kg−1 min−1, the Michaelis constant (Km) was 11,476 μmol × kg−1 and the Michaelis equation was V = 0.97[S]/(11,476 + [S]). The thermodynamic study showed that the activation energy (Ea) was 70.37 kJ·mol−1, the activation enthalpy change of the reaction (ΔH) > 0, the free energy of activation (ΔG) > 0 and the activation entropy change (ΔS) < 0, indicating the reaction could not be spontaneous. The reaction mechanism of ZEN was studied by a hybrid quadrupole orbitrap mass spectrometer. It was found that ZEN first generated the intermediate G/L/D/W-ZEN+H2O, followed by generating the intermediate W-ZEN-H2O under the action of a degrading enzyme. Then, the lactone bond was opened to produce C18H24O6, and finally the decarboxylation product C17H24O4 formed automatically.

Zearalenone lactonase: characteristics, modification, and application

Zearalenone (ZEN) and its derivatives are one of the most contaminated fungal toxins worldwide, posing a severe threat to food security and human life. Traditional physical and chemical detoxifying methods are unsatisfactory due to incomplete detoxification, nutrient loss, and secondary pollutants. In recent years, bioremediation for eliminating fungal toxins has been gradually investigated. ZEN lactone hydrolase (lactonase) has been widely studied because of its high activity, mild conditions, and non-toxic product property. This review comprehensively represents the gene mining, characterization, molecular modification, and application of microbial-derived ZEN lactonases. It is aimed to elucidate the advantages and challenges of ZEN lactonases in industrial application, which also provides perspectives on obtaining innovative and promising biocatalysts for ZEN degradation. KEY POINTS: • A timely and concise review related to enzymatic elimination towards ZEN is shown. • The catalytic conditions and mechanism of ZEN lactonase is presented. • The modification and application of ZEN lactonase are exhibited also.

Toxicity of zearalenone and its nutritional intervention by natural products

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a toxic secondary metabolite mainly produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium, and is often present in various food and feed ingredients such as corn and wheat. The structure of ZEN is similar to that of natural estrogen, and it can bind to estrogen receptors and has estrogenic activity. Therefore, it can cause endocrine-disrupting effects and promote the proliferation of estrogen receptor-positive cell lines. In addition, ZEN can cause oxidative damage, endoplasmic reticulum stress, apoptosis, and other hazards, resulting in systemic toxic effects, including reproductive toxicity, hepatotoxicity, and immunotoxicity. In the past few decades, researchers have tried many ways to remove ZEN from food and feed, but it is still a challenge to eliminate it. In recent years, natural compounds have become of interest for their excellent protective effects on human health from food contaminants. Researchers have discovered that natural compounds often used as dietary supplements can effectively alleviate ZEN-induced systemic toxic effects. Most of the compounds mitigate ZEN-induced toxicity through antioxidant effects. In this article, the contamination of food and feed by ZEN and the various toxic effects and mechanisms of ZEN are reviewed, as well as the mitigation effects of natural compounds on ZEN-induced toxicity.

Cloning and Characterization of Three Novel Enzymes Responsible for the Detoxification of Zearalenone

Zearalenone is a common mycotoxin contaminant in cereals that causes severe economic losses and serious risks to health of human and animals. Many strategies have been devised to degrade ZEN and keep food safe. The hydrolase ZHD101 from Clonostachys rosea, which catalyzes the hydrolytic degradation of ZEN, has been studied widely. In the current research, three new enzymes that have the capacity to detoxify ZEN were identified, namely CLA, EXO, and TRI, showing 61%, 63%, and 97% amino acids identities with ZHD101, respectively. Three coding genes was expressed as heterologous in Escherichia coli BL21. Through biochemical analysis, the purified recombinant CLA, EXO, TRI, and ZHD101 exhibited high activities of degrading ZEN with the specific activity of 114.8 U/mg, 459.0 U/mg, 239.8 U/mg, and 242.8 U/mg. The optimal temperatures of CLA, EXO, TRI, and ZHD101 were 40 °C, 40 °C, 40 °C, and 45 °C, and their optimum pH were 7.0, 9.0, 9.5, and 9.0, respectively. Our study demonstrated that the novel enzymes CLA, EXO, and TRI possessed high ability to degrade ZEN from the model solutions and could be the promising candidates for ZEN detoxification in practical application.

Ozonation of agri-food products for reducing mycotoxin contamination: challenges in grains and particulates processing

This study evaluated differences in the efficiency of ozonation process to reduce the natural contamination of two mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN), in wheat grains and particulate products. Three different products were used, each one representing a different structure and mycotoxin distribution: (1) wheat grains, with natural mycotoxin distribution inside and among the grains; (2) homemade pellets, with homogenous mycotoxin distribution; (3) ground homemade pellets, with homogeneous mycotoxin distribution, and smaller particles. The ozonation of naturally contaminated wheat grains did not reduce the concentrations of DON and ZEN. When the variability of contamination among replicates was reduced by the production of homemade pellets showed, the ozonation provides a reduction of 14% of ZEN concentration. Reducing the size of particles by grinding the homemade pellets, a reduction of DON (11%) and ZEN (31%) was observed, which was evidenced by the higher ozone consumption during the process. Therefore, some limitations of ozonation of grains and particulate products, such as particle dimensions and distribution of natural contamination of mycotoxins affect the degradation of DON and ZEN under real conditions. Because of this, further studies to evaluate the effectiveness of ozonation should also be performed in samples naturally contaminated to produce robustness results.

Occurrence, Impact on Agriculture, Human Health, and Management Strategies of Zearalenone in Food and Feed: A Review

Mycotoxins represent an assorted range of secondary fungal metabolites that extensively occur in numerous food and feed ingredients at any stage during pre- and post-harvest conditions. Zearalenone (ZEN), a mycotoxin categorized as a xenoestrogen poses structural similarity with natural estrogens that enables its binding to the estrogen receptors leading to hormonal misbalance and numerous reproductive diseases. ZEN is mainly found in crops belonging to temperate regions, primarily in maize and other cereal crops that form an important part of various food and feed. Because of the significant adverse effects of ZEN on both human and animal, there is an alarming need for effective detection, mitigation, and management strategies to assure food and feed safety and security. The present review tends to provide an updated overview of the different sources, occurrence and biosynthetic mechanisms of ZEN in various food and feed. It also provides insight to its harmful effects on human health and agriculture along with its effective detection, management, and control strategies.

Mycotoxins in Feed and Food and the Role of Ozone in Their Detoxification and Degradation: An Update

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by some filamentous fungi, which can cause toxicity in animal species, including humans. Because of their high toxicological impacts, mycotoxins have received significant consideration, leading to the definition of strict legislative thresholds and limits in many areas of the world. Mycotoxins can reduce farm profits not only through reduced crop quality and product refusal, but also through a reduction in animal productivity and health. This paper briefly addresses the impacts of mycotoxin contamination of feed and food on animal and human health, and describes the main pre- and post-harvest systems to control their levels, including genetic, agronomic, biological, chemical, and physical methods. It so highlights (i) the lack of effective and straightforward solutions to control mycotoxin contamination in the field, at pre-harvest, as well as later post-harvest; and (ii) the increasing demand for novel methods to control mycotoxin infections, intoxications, and diseases, without leaving toxic chemical residues in the food and feed chain. Thus, the broad objective of the present study was to review the literature on the use of ozone for mycotoxin decontamination, proposing this gaseous air pollutant as a powerful tool to detoxify mycotoxins from feed and food.

Application of ozone for degradation of mycotoxins in food: A review

Mycotoxins such as aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA) fumonisins (FMN), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), and patulin are stable at regular food process practices. Ozone (O₃ ) is a strong oxidizer and generally considered as a safe antimicrobial agent in food industries. Ozone disrupts fungal cells through oxidizing sulfhydryl and amino acid groups of enzymes or attacks the polyunsaturated fatty acids of the cell wall. Fusarium is the most sensitive mycotoxigenic fungi to ozonation followed by Aspergillus and Penicillium. Studies have shown complete inactivation of Fusarium and Aspergillus by O₃ gas. Spore germination and toxin production have also been reduced after ozone fumigation. Both naturally and artificially, mycotoxin-contaminated samples have shown significant mycotoxin reduction after ozonation. Although the mechanism of detoxification is not very clear for some mycotoxins, it is believed that ozone reacts with the functional groups in the mycotoxin molecules, changes their molecular structures, and forms products with lower molecular weight, less double bonds, and less toxicity. Although some minor physicochemical changes were observed in some ozone-treated foods, these changes may or may not affect the use of the ozonated product depending on the further application of it. The effectiveness of the ozonation process depends on the exposure time, ozone concentration, temperature, moisture content of the product, and relative humidity. Due to its strong oxidizing property and corrosiveness, there are strict limits for O₃ gas exposure. O₃ gas has limited penetration and decomposes quickly. However, ozone treatment can be used as a safe and green technology for food preservation and control of contaminants.

Effect of Ozone and Electron Beam Irradiation on Degradation of Zearalenone and Ochratoxin A

Zearalenone (ZEN) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are key concerns of the food industry because of their toxicity and pollution scope. This study investigated the effects of ozone and electron beam irradiation (EBI) on the degradation of ZEN and OTA. Results demonstrated that 2 mL of 50 μg/mL ZEN was completely degraded after 10 s of treatment by 2.0 mg/L ozone. The degradation rate of 1 μg/mL ZEN by 16 kGy EBI was 92.76%. Methanol was superior to acetonitrile in terms of degrading ZEN when the irradiation dose was higher than 6 kGy. The degradation rate of 2 mL of 5 μg/mL OTA by 50 mg/L ozone at 180 s was 34%, and that of 1 μg/mL OTA by 16 kGy EBI exceeded 90%. Moreover, OTA degraded more rapidly in acetonitrile. Ozone performed better in the degradation of ZEN, whereas EBI was better for OTA. The conclusions provide theoretical and practical bases for the degradation of different fungal toxins.

Ozone technology to reduce zearalenone contamination in whole maize flour: degradation kinetics and impact on quality

BACKGROUND

Maize is one of the most important cereals. It is used for different purposes and in different industries worldwide. This cereal is prone to contamination with mycotoxins, such as zearalenone (ZEN), which is produced mainly by Fusarium graminearum, F. culmorum and F. equiseti. Toxin production under highly moist conditions (aw > 0.95) is exacerbated if there are alternations between low temperatures (12-14 °C) and high temperatures (25-28 °C). Even if good production practices are adopted, mycotoxins can be found in several stages of the production chain. For this reason, an alternative to reducing this contamination is ozonation. This study evaluated the reduction of ZEN in naturally contaminated whole maize flour (WMF) treated with 51.5 mg L^-1 of ozone for up to 60 min. Pasting properties, peroxide value, and fatty acid composition were also evaluated.

RESULTS

Zearalenone degradation in ozonated WMF was described by a fractional first-order kinetic, with a maximum reduction of 62.3% and kinetic parameter of 0.201 min^-1 in the conditions that were evaluated. The ozonation process in WMF showed a decrease in the apparent viscosity, a decrease in the proportion of linoleic, oleic, and α-linolenic fatty acids, an increase in the proportion of palmitic acid, and an increase in the peroxide value.

CONCLUSION

Ozonation was effective in reducing ZEN contamination in WMF. However, it also modified the pasting properties, fatty acid profile, and peroxide value, affecting functional and technological aspects of WMF. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Characterization and Genome Analysis of a Zearalenone-Degrading Bacillus velezensis Strain ANSB01E

Zearalenone, a nonsteroidal estrogenic mycotoxin mainly produced by Fusarium species, causes reproductive disorders and hyperestrogenic syndromes in animals and humans. The bacterial strain Bacillus velezensis ANSB01E, isolated from chicken cecal content, was capable of effectively degrading zearalenone in both liquid medium and mouldy corn. Moreover, Bacillus velezensis ANSB01E exhibited good antimicrobial activities against animal pathogenic bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella spp. Genome-based analysis revealed the presence of genes coding peroxiredoxin and alpha/beta hydrolase in Bacillus velezensis ANSB01E, which may be involved in zearalenone degradation. The study on the genome provides insights into the zearalenone degradation mechanisms and advances the potential application of Bacillus velezensis ANSB01E in food and feed industry.