Transfersomes as versatile and flexible nano-vesicular carriers in skin cancer therapy: the state of the art

Transdermal delivery of ultradeformable cationic liposomes complexed with miR211-5p (UCL-211) stabilizes BRAFV600E+ melanocytic nevi

Small non-coding RNAs (e.g., siRNA, miRNA) are involved in a variety of melanocyte-associated skin conditions and act as drivers for alterations in gene expression within melanocytes. These molecular changes can potentially affect the cellular stability of melanocytes and promote their oncogenic transformation. Thus, small RNAs can be considered as therapeutic targets for these conditions, however, their transdermal delivery to the melanocytes through the epidermal barrier is challenging. We synthesized and extensively evaluated ultradeformable cationic liposome (UCLs) carriers complexed with synthetic microRNAs (miR211-5p; UCL-211) for transdermal delivery to melanocytes. UCL-211 complexes were characterized for their physicochemical properties, encapsulation efficiency, and deformability, which revealed a significant advantage over conventional liposomal carriers. Increased expression of miR211-5p stabilizes melanocytic nevi and keeps them in a growth-arrested state. We did a comprehensive assessment of cellular delivery, and biological activity of the miR211-5p carried by UCL-211 in vitro and their permeation through the epidermis of intact skin using ex vivo human skin tissue explants. We also demonstrated, in vivo, that transdermal delivery of miR211-5p by topical application of UCL-211 stabilized BRAFV600E+ nevi melanocytes in a benign nevi state.

Formulation and Characterization of Transfersomes for Ocular Delivery of Tonabersat

Transfersomes (TFS) are deformable vesicles, known for their ability to enhance transdermal drug penetration. This study aimed to develop and optimize TFS to evaluate whether they can also enhance ocular delivery of tonabersat, a poorly soluble inflammasome inhibitor. TFS were prepared using Phospholipon® 90G with Tween® 80 as the edge activator. The effect of formulation parameters (edge activator and cryoprotectant concentrations) on TFS characteristics were evaluated using a full factorial experimental design. The optimized TFS eyedrop was further characterized for particle size, zeta potential, deformability, entrapment efficiency (EE), drug content, pH, and osmolarity. Further, TFS stability was evaluated over 3 months at different storage conditions. Finally, drug penetration into the cornea, conjunctiva, eyelid and sclera-choroid after topical ocular application was studied ex vivo using a tonabersat solution in medium chain triglycerides as the control. The optimized TFS formed spherical unilamellar vesicles with a mean diameter less than 130 nm, EE greater than 80% and were stable at -20 °C and 5 ± 3 °C for up to 3 months. The TFS eyedrop resulted in significantly greater ocular penetration than the control without affecting the barrier properties of the tested tissue. Drug penetration between different ocular tissues was compared, shedding light on the penetration mechanism of TFS into the eye. Overall, this study demonstrates that TFS provide a promising alternative for the ocular delivery of tonabersat.

Transfersomes: a next-generation drug delivery system for topical ocular drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

The eye is a complex organ with several anatomical and physiological barriers that make ocular drug delivery an ongoing challenge. Transfersomes (TFS) are deformable vesicles that have been extensively applied to enhance transdermal drug delivery. However, their application in ocular drug delivery remains largely unexplored.

AREAS COVERED

This review highlights the challenges typically associated with ocular drug delivery and emphasizes the inherent properties of TFS that enable them to overcome these challenges. The influence of excipients and critical process parameters on TFS characteristics have been discussed in detail with an emphasis on the fabrication and characterization techniques typically employed for TFS development and optimization. Furthermore, recent studies evaluating the application of TFS in ocular drug delivery have been discussed in depth.

EXPERT OPINION

The unique stress-responsive and deformable nature of TFS makes them promising carriers for ocular drug delivery. However, further research in this direction is needed to understand their penetration mechanism and elucidate their potential for sustained and targeted drug delivery to ocular tissues. Moreover, further research is needed to optimize the stability and scalability of TFS to encourage their translation to the market.

A new era of psoriasis treatment: Drug repurposing through the lens of nanotechnology and machine learning

Psoriasis is a persistent inflammatory skin disorder characterized by hyper-proliferation and abnormal epidermal differentiation. Conventional treatments such as; topical therapies, phototherapy, systemic immune modulators, and biologics aim to relieve symptoms and improve patient quality of life. However, challenges like adverse effects, high costs, and individual response variability persist. Thus, the need for novel anti-psoriatic drugs has led to the exploration of drug repurposing, an approach that identifies new applications for existing drugs. This method is in its early stages but has gained popularity across both public and private sectors. Furthermore, artificial intelligence (AI) integration is revolutionizing the healthcare industry by enhancing efficiency, delivery, and personalization. Machine learning and deep learning algorithms have significantly impacted drug discovery, repurposing, and designing new molecules or drug delivery carriers. Nanotechnology, in addition to AI, plays a pivotal role in targeting repurposed drugs via the topical route with suitable nanocarriers. This method overcomes challenges associated with oral delivery, such as systemic toxicities, slow onset of action, first-pass effect, and poor bioavailability. This review addresses the practice of repurposing existing drugs for managing psoriasis, discussing the challenges of conventional therapy and how the incorporation of nanotechnology and AI can overcome these hurdles, facilitating the discovery of anti-psoriatic drugs and presenting promising strategies for novel therapeutics. Additionally, it discusses the general benefits of drug repurposing compared to de novo drug development and the potential drawbacks of drug repurposing.

Potential of the Nano-Encapsulation of Antioxidant Molecules in Wound Healing Applications: An Innovative Strategy to Enhance the Bio-Profile

Naturally available antioxidants offer remarkable medicinal applications in wound healing. However, the encapsulation of these phytoactive moieties into suitable nano-scale drug delivery systems has always been challenging due to their inherent characteristics, such as low molecular weight, poor aqueous solubility, and inadequate skin permeability. Here, we provide a systematic review focusing on the major obstacles hindering the development of various lipid and polymer-based drug transporters to carry these cargos to the targeted site. Additionally, this review covers the possibility of combining the effects of a polymer and a lipid within one system, which could increase the skin permeability threshold. Moreover, the lack of suitable physical characterization techniques and the challenges associated with scaling up the progression of these nano-carriers limit their utility in biomedical applications. In this context, consistent progressive approaches for addressing these shortcomings are introduced, and their prospects are discussed in detail.

An overview of phospholipid enriched-edge activator-based vesicle nanocarriers: new paradigms to treat skin cancer

Skin cancer poses a significant global health concern necessitating innovative treatment approaches. This review explores the potential of vesicle nanoformulation incorporating EA (edge activators) to overcome barriers in skin cancer management. The skin's inherent protective mechanisms, specifically the outermost layer called the stratum corneum and the network of blood arteries, impede the permeation of drugs. Phospholipid-enriched EA based nanoformulation offer a promising solution by enhancing drug penetration through skin barriers. EAs like Span 80, Span 20, Tween 20, and sodium cholate etc., enhance vesicles deformability, influencing drug permeation. This review discusses topical application of drugs treat skin cancer, highlighting challenges connected with the conventional liposome and the significance of using EA-based nanoformulation in overcoming these challenges. Furthermore, it provides insights into various EA characteristics, critical insights, clinical trials, and patents. The review also offers a concise overview of composition, preparation techniques, and the application of EA-based nanoformulation such as transfersomes, transliposomes, transethosomes, and transniosomes for delivering drugs to treat skin cancer. Overall, this review intends to accelerate the development of formulations that incorporate EA, which would further improve topical drug delivery and enhance therapeutic outcomes in skin cancer treatment.

Transfersomes: Recent Advances, Mechanisms, Exhaustive Applications, Clinical Trials, and Patents

A feasible nano transdermal delivery system generally intends to have specific ideal and distinct characteristics primarily for safety, clinical efficacy, and boosted therapeutic index. The delivery of drugs, particularly macromolecules, across the skin is one of the most strenuous obstacles in front of pharmaceutical scientists. Technology advancement has provided some opportunities to overcome this difficulty by utilising microneedle arrays, ablation, laser methods etc. However, associated uneasiness, painful sensation, and higher cost of therapies limit their day-today use. Therefore, researchers have focused on developing alternate carriers like ultra-deformable liposomes, also termed transfersomes. Transfersomes are composed of a lipid bilayer containing phospholipids and an edge activator to facilitate drug delivery via transdermal route to deeper layers of skin and for higher systemic bioavailability. The bilayer structure of transfersomes allows ease of encapsulation of both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs with higher permeability than typical liposomes. Therefore, among various vesicular systems, transfersomes have developed much interest in targeted and sustained drug delivery. The current review primarily emphasizes critical aspects of transfersomes, including their applications, clinical trial studies, and patents found in various literature sources.

Nanocarrier-Mediated Dermal Drug Delivery System of Antimicrobial Agents for Targeting Skin and Soft Tissue Infections

Antimicrobial resistance in disease-causing microbes is seen as a severe problem that affects the entire world, makes therapy less effective, and raises mortality rates. Dermal antimicrobial therapy becomes a desirable choice in the management of infectious disorders since the rising resistance to systemic antimicrobial treatment frequently necessitates the use of more toxic drugs. Nanoparticulate systems such as nanobactericides, which have built-in antibacterial activity, and nanocarriers, which function as drug delivery systems for conventional antimicrobials, are just two examples of the treatment methods made feasible by nanotechnology. Silver nanoparticles, zinc oxide nanoparticles, and titanium dioxide nanoparticles are examples of inorganic nanoparticles that are efficient on sensitive and multidrug-resistant bacterial strains both as nanobactericides and nanocarriers. To stop the growth of microorganisms that are resistant to standard antimicrobials, various antimicrobials for dermal application are widely used. This review covers the most prevalent microbes responsible for skin and soft tissue infections, techniques to deliver dermal antimicrobials, topical antimicrobial safety concerns, current issues, challenges, and potential future developments. A thorough and methodical search of databases, such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, and others, using specified keyword combinations, such as "antimicrobials," "dermal," "nanocarriers," and numerous others, was used to gather relevant literature for this work.

Exploring the Therapeutic Potential of Vesicular Nanocarrier Systems for Elimination of Skin Cancer

BACKGROUND

Skin cancer, a common malignancy worldwide, has increased incidence and mortality. Thus, it is a public health issue and a significant illness burden, which increases treatment costs. Chemotherapy and surgery are used to treat skin cancer. However, conventional skin cancer treatments have several limitations, demanding the development of innovative, safe, and effective methods. To overcome these limitations of conventional topical dosage forms, many nanocarriers have been developed and tested for the targeted delivery of anticancer drugs.

OBJECTIVE

The main objective of the present review was to discuss the utility of various vesicular nanocarrier systems to deliver anticancer drugs following topical administration to treat skin cancer.

METHODS

For this review article, we scoured the scholarly literature using Science Direct, Google Scholar, and PubMed.

DISCUSSION

The vesicular drug delivery system has been intensively explored and developed as an alternative to conventional skin cancer drug delivery systems, especially for melanoma. They improve the penetration of anticancer drugs via the skin, reaching the cancer area with enough and killing cancer cells. Vesicles minimize skin irritation and drug degradation. This improves therapy efficacy and reduces systemic toxicity.

CONCLUSION

Utilizing the vesicular drug delivery system shows promise in treating skin cancer. Therefore, further research and inquiries are necessary to explore the therapeutic potential of these substances in treating skin cancer, intending to develop a personalized, efficient, and secure therapy approach for patients with this condition.

Transfersomal serum loading amniotic mesenchymal stem cells metabolite products with hyaluronic acid addition for skin regeneration in UV aging-induced mice

Amniotic Mesenchymal Stem Cells Metabolite Products (AMSC-MP) contain growth factors that benefit human health. This study aims to evaluate the use of transfersomal serum (Trans) with hyaluronic acid (HA) addition to deliver large molecules of AMSC-MP for skin regeneration. Trans is composed of L-α-phosphatidylcholine and surfactants, i.e., sodium cholate (SC) or stearylamine (SA), at the weight ratio of 85:15, prepared by the thin film method with or without HA addition. The results showed that HA addition increased the particle size of Trans-SA and Trans-SC, from 261.9 ± 1.9 and 105.3 ± 0.9 nm respectively, to 317.7 ± 9.1 and 144.3 ± 0.8 nm for Trans-SA-HA and Trans-SC-HA. In contrast, no significant changes in the zeta potential occurred. The relative deformability indexes of Trans-SA, Trans-SA-HA, Trans-SC, and Trans-SC-HA compared to liposome were 0.43 ± 0.09, 0.46 ± 0.09, 1.58 ± 0.17, and 1.40 ± 0.17 respectively. The addition of HA successfully increases the in vivo skin hydration, collagen density, and number of fibroblast cells, reflecting the capacity for skin regeneration in UV-induced aged mice. Furthermore, no erythema or skin rash was observed at the 24-hour post-topical application sites. AMSC-MP transfersomal serum with HA addition successfully enhanced skin regeneration and proved safe during the in vivo study using UV aging-induced mice models, thereby enabling its potential use as skin-aging therapy.

Quality by design for Niosome-Based nanocarriers to improve transdermal drug delivery from lab to industry

Niosomes are essentially multilamellar or unilamellar vesicles based on non-ionic surfactants. They consist of surfactant macromolecules arranged in a bilayer, which surrounds an aqueous solute solution. Amphiphilic, biodegradable, biocompatible, and environmentally friendly materials are utilized for encapsulating the drugs in vesicles that enhance the bioavailability, therapeutic efficacy, penetration of drug via the skin, and drug release in a controlled or sustained manner, and are employed to target the anticipated area via modifying composition that acts to minimize undesirable effects. With cholesterol as the lipid, Tween 20, Span 60, and Tween 60 are mostly employed as surfactants. Many medications, including Glibenclamide for diabetic kidney disease and anti-cancer medications including gemcitabine, cisplatin, and nintedanib, have been effectively encapsulated into niosomes. The traditional approach for creating niosomes at the lab scale is a thin film hydration process. The ideal ratio between primary components as well as critical manufacturing process parameters is key component in creating the best niosomal formulations with substantial drug loading and nanometric form. Utilizing the Design of Experiments (DoE) and Response Surface Methodology (RSM) in conjunction with Quality by design (QbD) is essential for comprehending how these variables interact both during lab preparation and during the scale-up process. Research on the development of anti-aging cosmetics is being done by Loreal. Niosomal preparations like Lancome are sold in stores. An overview of niosomes, penetration mechanisms, and quality by design from laboratory to industrial scale is provided in this article.

Lipid-based nanocarriers: an attractive approach for rheumatoid arthritis management

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as transformative tools in modern drug delivery, offering unparalleled potential in enhancing the efficacy and safety of various therapeutics. In the context of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), a disabling autoimmune disorder characterized by chronic inflammation, joint damage, and limited patient mobility, LNPs hold significant promise for revolutionizing treatment strategies. LNPs offer several advantages over traditional drug delivery systems, including improved pharmacokinetics, enhanced tissue penetration, and reduced systemic toxicity. This article concisely summarizes the pathogenesis of RA, its associated risk factors, and therapeutic techniques and their challenges. Additionally, it highlights the noteworthy advancements made in managing RA through LNPs, including liposomes, niosomes, bilosomes, cubosomes, spanlastics, ethosomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, lipid micelles, lipid nanocapsules, nanostructured lipid carriers, etc. It also delves into the specific functional attributes of these nanocarrier systems, focusing on their role in treating and monitoring RA.

Genistein transfersome-embedded topical delivery system for skin melanoma treatment: in vitro and ex vivo evaluations

Skin melanoma is considered the most dangerous form of skin cancer due to its association with high risk of metastasis, high mortality rate and high resistance to different treatment options. Genistein is a natural isoflavonoid with known chemotherapeutic activity. Unfortunately, it has low bioavailability due to its poor aqueous solubility and excessive metabolism. In the current study, genistein was incorporated into transferosomal hydrogel to improve its bioavailability. The prepared transferosomal formulations were characterized regarding: particle size; polydispersity index; zeta potential; encapsulation efficiency; TEM; FTIR; DSC; XRD; in vitro drug release; viscosity; pH; ex vivo anti-tumor activity on 3D skin melanoma spheroids and 1-year stability study at different storage temperatures. The optimized formulation has high encapsulation efficiency with an excellent particle size that will facilitate its penetration through the skin. The transfersomes have a spherical shape with sustained drug release profile. The anti-tumor activity evaluation of genistein transfersome revealed that genistein is a potent chemotherapeutic agent with enhanced penetration ability through the melanoma spheroids when incorporated into transfersomes. Stability study results demonstrate the high physical and chemical stability of our formulations. All these outcomes provide evidence that our genistein transferosomal hydrogel is a promising treatment option for skin melanoma.

Reconnoitring signaling pathways and exploiting innovative approaches tailoring multifaceted therapies for skin cancer

Nowadays, skin cancer is widespread just like a varied malignant cancer which can cause serious health issues. Skin cancer, which encompasses malignant melanoma, basal cell carcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma, is a prevalent form of cancer among humans. Due to its broad prevalence, financial burden, mortality rates, and cosmetic effects, it is a major public health issue. Skin cancer treatment involves surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation. Recently, personalized treatment in the fields of targeted therapies and precision medicine has been shown to diagnose early detection of every individual tumor by knowing their genetic and molecular characteristics. To target the molecular pathways responsible for tumor growth and reduce the damage to healthy tissue, new targeted therapies have emerged for melanoma, basal cell carcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma. B-raf serine/threonine kinase (BRAF) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK) inhibitors, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and precision medications have strong response rates to improve patient survival. Targeted therapeutics like nanocarriers have shown promising results by reducing skin irritation and protecting encapsulated therapeutics. These formulations have been shown to improve the transdermal permeability of anticancer drugs. The consideration of employing physical techniques to enhance the permeation of nanocarriers warrants attention to augment the dermal permeation of anticancer agents and facilitate targeted drug delivery within neoplastic cells. Targeted therapies face obstacles like resistance mechanisms and treatment strategy monitoring. Taken together, this review delves into the basic mechanisms of skin cancer, current treatment methods, drug resistance processes, and nano-based targeted techniques for cancer treatment. It will also delineate the challenges and perspectives in pre-clinical and clinical contexts.

Natural product-loaded lipid-based nanocarriers for skin cancer treatment: An overview

The skin is essential for body protection and regulating physiological processes. It is the largest organ and serves as the first-line barrier against UV radiation, harmful substances, and infections. Skin cancer is considered the most prevalent type of cancer worldwide, while melanoma skin cancer is having high mortality rates. Skin cancer, including melanoma and non-melanoma forms, is primarily caused by prolonged exposure to UV sunlight and pollution. Currently, treatments for skin cancer include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. However, several factors hinder the effectiveness of these treatments, such as low efficacy, the necessity for high concentrations of active components to achieve a therapeutic effect, and poor drug permeation into the stratum corneum or lesions. Additionally, low bioavailability at the target site necessitates high doses, leading to skin irritation and further obstructing drug absorption through the stratum corneum. To overcome these challenges, recent research focuses on developing a medication delivery system based on nanotechnology as an alternative to this traditional approach. Nano-drug delivery systems have demonstrated great promise in treating skin cancer by providing a more effective means of delivering drugs with better stability and drug absorption. An overview of various lipid-based nanocarriers is given in this review article that are utilized to carry natural compounds to treat skin cancer.

Nanotechnology-based drug delivery platforms for erectile dysfunction: addressing efficacy, safety, and bioavailability concerns

Erectile dysfunction (ED), is a common and multidimensional sexual disorder, which comprises changes among any of the processes of the erectile response such as organic, relational, and psychological. However, both endocrine and nonendocrine causes of ED produce substantial health implications including depression and anxiety due to poor sexual performance, eventually affecting man's life eminence. Marginally invasive interventions following ED consist of lifestyle modifications, oral drugs, injections, vacuum erection devices, etc. Nevertheless, these conventional treatment regimens follow certain drawbacks such as efficacy and safety issues, and navigate to the development of novel therapeutic approaches such as nanomedicine for ED management. Nanotechnology-centred drug delivery platforms are being explored to minimize these limitations with better in vitro and in vivo effectiveness. Moreover, nanomedicine and nanocarrier-linked approaches are rapidly developing science in the nanoscale range, which contributes to site-specific delivery in a controlled manner and has generated considerable interest prominent to their potential to enhance bioavailability, decrease side effects, and avoidance of first-pass metabolism. This review provides an overview of recent discoveries regarding various nanocarriers and nano-delivery methods, along with current trends in the clinical aspects of ED. Additionally, strategies for clinical translation have been incorporated.

Transdermal Delivery of Ultradeformable Cationic Liposomes Complexed with miR211-5p (UCL-211) Stabilizes BRAFV600E+ Melanocytic Nevi

Small non-coding RNAs (e.g. siRNA, miRNA) are involved in a variety of melanocyte-associated skin conditions and act as drivers for alterations in gene expression within melanocytes. These molecular changes can potentially affect the cellular stability of melanocytes and promote their oncogenic transformation. Thus, small RNAs can be considered as therapeutic targets for these conditions, however, their topical delivery to the melanocytes through the epidermal barrier is challenging. We synthesized and extensively evaluated ultradeformable cationic liposome (UCLs) carriers complexed with synthetic microRNAs (miR211-5p; UCL-211) for transdermal delivery to melanocytes. UCL-211 complexes were characterized for their physicochemical properties, encapsulation efficiency, and deformability, which revealed a significant advantage over conventional liposomal carriers. Increased expression of miR211-5p stabilizes melanocytic nevi and keeps them in growth-arrested state. We did a comprehensive assessment of cellular delivery, and biological activity of the miR211-5p carried by UCL-211 in vitro and their permeation through the epidermis of intact skin using ex vivo human skin tissue explants. We also demonstrated, in vivo, that topical delivery of miR211-5p by UCL-211 stabilized BRAFV600E+ nevi melanocytes in a benign nevi state.

Quality by design (QbD) based approach for development of itraconazole-loaded transferosomes for skin cancer: in vitro, ex vivo and cell line studies

OBJECTIVE

Itraconazole (ITZ), a widely used systemic antifungal drug, has been ingeniously repurposed for its antitumor effects. In the present work, we have prepared and optimized the ITZ-loaded transferosomes by Quality by Design (QbD) approach and repurposed them for skin cancer.

METHODS

The transferosomal formulation was optimized by employing a QbD approach with the design of experiment. A combination of screening and optimization design was used for formulation optimization. The optimized formulation was characterized by particle size, PDI, zeta potential, FTIR, XRD, and surface morphology using TEM. In vitro and ex vivo studies were performed using Franz diffusion cells. An in vitro cell line study was performed on the human melanoma A375 cell line.

RESULTS

The optimized formulation has a particle size of 192.37 ± 13.19 nm, PDI of 0.41 ± 0.03, zeta potential -47.80 ± 3.66, and an entrapment efficiency of 64.11 ± 3.75%. In vitro release studies showed that ITZ encapsulated transferosomes offer higher and sustained release than pure drugs. Ex vivo drug penetration and retention studies show that the penetration and retention of transferosomes are more visible in the skin than in the drug. The cell viability study confirms that ITZ encapsulated transferosomes have almost 2-fold more potency against the A375 cell line than pure drug.

CONCLUSION

ITZ encapsulated transferosomes were successfully prepared and optimized using a combination of screening and optimization designs. Based on ex vivo and cell line studies, we conclude that ITZ-loaded transferosomes could aid melanoma management alongside standard therapies.

Development and Evaluation of Methotrexate and Baicalin-Loaded Nanolipid Carriers for Psoriasis Treatment

Objectives

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory, T-lymphocyte immune-mediated skin disease. In this study, skin-permeating nanolipid carriers (NLCs) of Methotrexate (MTX) and Baicalin (BL) were formulated. This further gave formulation of nano-lipid encapsulated carriers for dual-drug delivery of the hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs through the liposomal gel.

Materials and Methods

Optimization of the formulation of NLCs was performed and characterized by determining their particle size, drug permeation, skin irritation, drug loading capacity, stability, in vitro drug release behavior, and in vitro cellular viability. Ex vivo skin permeation and in vivo psoriatic efficiency were also evaluated and compared.

Results

Results revealed that the amount of MTX permeating the skin was 2.4 to 4.4 fold greater for dual-drug s than for single NLCs. The optimized dual-drug loaded NLCs had an average particle size (150.20 ± 3.57 nm) and polydispersity index (0.301 ± 0.01) and high entrapment (86.32 ± 2.78% w/w). The MTX nanoparticles exhibit a positive Zeta potential of 38.6 mV. The psoriasis area and severity index scoring showed the lowest skin erythema, skin thickness and scaling. MTX-BL NLCs were inhibited the expression of inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and interleukin-17) .

Conclusion

It can be concluded that newer targeting strategies for NLCs for dual-drug delivery of nano-lipid carriers could be administered topically for the treatment of psoriasis.

Unravelling the success of transferosomes against skin cancer: Journey so far and road ahead

Skin cancer remains one of the most prominent types of cancer. Melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer are commonly found together, with melanoma being the more deadly type. Skin cancer can be effectively treated with chemotherapy, which mostly uses small molecular medicines, phytoceuticals, and biomacromolecules. Topical delivery of these therapeutics is a non-invasive way that might be useful in effectively managing skin cancer. Different skin barriers, however, presented a major obstacle to topical cargo administration. Transferosomes have demonstrated significant potential in topical delivery by improving cargo penetration through the circumvention of diverse skin barriers. Additionally, the transferosome-based gel can prolong the residence of drug on the skin, lowering the frequency of doses and their associated side effects. However, the choice of appropriate transferosome compositions, such as phospholipids and edge activators, and fabrication technique are crucial for achieving improved entrapment efficiency, penetration, and regulated particle size. The present review discusses skin cancer overview, current treatment strategies for skin cancer and their drawbacks. Topical drug delivery against skin cancer is also covered, along with the difficulties associated with it and the importance of transferosomes in avoiding these difficulties. Additionally, a summary of transferosome compositions and fabrication methods is provided. Furthermore, topical delivery of small molecular drugs, phytoceuticals, and biomacromolecules using transferosomes and transferosomes-based gel in treating skin cancer is discussed. Thus, transferosomes can be a significant option in the topical delivery of drugs to manage skin cancer efficiently.

Vesicle delivery systems of functional substances for precision nutrition

Vesicular delivery systems are highly ordered assemblies consisting of one or more concentric bilayers formed by the self-assembly of amphiphilic building blocks in the presence of water. In the field of functional food, vesicular delivery systems have been widely explored for effective formulations to deliver functional substances. With the effort of scientific research, certain categories of vesicular delivery systems have successfully been translated from the laboratory to the global market of functional food. This chapter aims to present comprehensively the various vesicular delivery systems, including their design, preparation methods, encapsulation of functional substances, and application in nutritional interventions.

Lipid-based nanoparticles as a promising treatment for the skin cancer

The prevalence of skin disorders, especially cancer, is increasing worldwide. Several factors are involved in causing skin cancer, but ultraviolet (UV) light, including sunlight and tanning beds, are considered the leading cause. Different methods such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, cryotherapy, and photodynamic therapy are mostly used for the skin cancer treatment. However, drug resistance and toxicity against cancer cells are related to these treatments. Lipid-nanoparticles have attracted significant interest as delivery systems due to non-invasive and targeted delivery based on the type of active drug. However, the stratum corneum, the outer layer of the skin, is inherently impervious to drugs. Due to their ability to penetrate the deep layers of the skin, skin delivery systems are capable of delivering drugs to target cells in a protected manner. The aim of this review was to examine the properties and applications of nanoliposomes used in the treatment and prevention of numerous types of skin cancer.

Bioactive Compounds Formulated in Phytosomes Administered as Complementary Therapy for Metabolic Disorders

Metabolic disorders (MDs), including dyslipidemia, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, diabetes mellitus, obesity and cardiovascular diseases are a significant threat to human health, despite the many therapies developed for their treatment. Different classes of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, and triterpenes have shown therapeutic potential in ameliorating various disorders. Most of these compounds present low bioavailability when administered orally, being rapidly metabolized in the digestive tract and liver which makes their metabolites less effective. Moreover, some of the bioactive compounds cannot fully exert their beneficial properties due to the low solubility and complex chemical structure which impede the passive diffusion through the intestinal cell membranes. To overcome these limitations, an innovative delivery system of phytosomes was developed. This review aims to highlight the scientific evidence proving the enhanced therapeutic benefits of the bioactive compounds formulated in phytosomes compared to the free compounds. The existing knowledge concerning the phytosomes' preparation, their characterization and bioavailability as well as the commercially available phytosomes with therapeutic potential to alleviate MDs are concisely depicted. This review brings arguments to encourage the use of phytosome formulation to diminish risk factors inducing MDs, or to treat the already installed diseases as complementary therapy to allopathic medication.

Recent Approaches for the Topical Treatment of Psoriasis Using Nanoparticles

Psoriasis (PSO) is a chronic autoimmune skin condition characterized by the rapid and excessive growth of skin cells, which leads to the formation of thick, red, and scaly patches on the surface of the skin. These patches can be itchy and painful, and they may cause discomfort for patients affected by this condition. Therapies for psoriasis aim to alleviate symptoms, reduce inflammation, and slow down the excessive skin cell growth. Conventional topical treatment options are non-specific, have low efficacy and are associated with adverse effects, which is why researchers are investigating different delivery mechanisms. A novel approach to drug delivery using nanoparticles (NPs) shows promise in reducing toxicity and improving therapeutic efficacy. The unique properties of NPs, such as their small size and large surface area, make them attractive for targeted drug delivery, enhanced drug stability, and controlled release. In the context of PSO, NPs can be designed to deliver active ingredients with anti-inflammatory effect, immunosuppressants, or other therapeutic compounds directly to affected skin areas. These novel formulations offer improved access to the epidermis and facilitate better absorption, thus enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of conventional anti-psoriatic drugs. NPs increase the surface-to-volume ratio, resulting in enhanced penetration through the skin, including intracellular, intercellular, and trans-appendage routes. The present review aims to discuss the latest approaches for the topical therapy of PSO using NPs. It is intended to summarize the results of the in vitro and in vivo examinations carried out in the last few years regarding the effectiveness and safety of nanoparticles.

Asiatic acid-entrapped transfersomes for the treatment of hypertrophic scars: In vitro appraisal, bioactivity evaluation, and clinical study

Non-invasive treatment options for hypertrophic scars (HTS) are limited, and treating HTS remains challenging due to their unappealing appearance and associated social stigma. In this work, a novel transfersomal system named Asiatic acid-entrapped transfersomes (AATs) was prepared. AATs were evaluated for their skin permeability, anti-inflammatory activity, and other characteristic parameters to determine the most promising formulation. Asiatic acid-entrapped transfersomal gel (AATG), which was obtained by incorporating the lead AATs in a gel base, underwent testing in an 8-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled, split-skin clinical study. The net skin elasticity (R5), melanin index (MI), and skin surface hydration were analyzed employing Cutometer®, Mexameter®, and Corneometer®, respectively, in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the developed AATG. AATs exhibited vesicular sizes and zeta potential values within the range of (27.15 ± 0.95 to 63.54 ± 2.51 nm) and (-0.010 to -0.129 mV), respectively. TW80AAT gave the highest %EE (90.84 ± 2.99%), deformability index (101.70 ± 11.59 mgs-1), permeation flux at 8 h (0.146 ± 0.005 mg/cm2/h), and anti-inflammatory activity (71.65 ± 1.83%). The clinical study results of AATG indicated no adverse skin reactions. Furthermore, product efficacy tests demonstrated a significant reduction in MI and an increase in net skin elasticity at 2, 4, and 8 weeks. These pilot study outcomes support the effectiveness of the AATG.

Novel Discoveries and Clinical Advancements for Treating Onychomycosis: A Mechanistic Insight

Onychomycosis continues to be the most challenging disease condition for pharmaceutical scientists to develop an effective drug delivery system. Treatment challenges lie in incomplete cure and high relapse rate. Present compilation provides cumulative information on pathophysiology, diagnostic techniques, and conventional treatment strategies to manage onychomycosis. Novel technologies developed for successful delivery of antifungal molecules are also discussed in brief. Multidirectional information offered by this article also unlocks the panoramic view of leading patented technologies and clinical trials. The obtained clinical landscape recommends the use of advanced technology driven approaches, as a promising way-out for treatment of onychomycosis. Collectively, present review warrants the application of novel technologies for the successful management of onychomycosis. This review will assist readers to envision a better understanding about the technologies available for combating onychomycosis. We also trust that these contributions address and certainly will encourage the design and development of nanocarriers-based delivery vehicles for effective management of onychomycosis.

Phytovesicular Nanoconstructs for Advanced Delivery of Medicinal Metabolites: An In-Depth Review

Phytochemicals, the bioactive compounds in plants, possess therapeutic benefits, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and pharmacological activities. However, their clinical use is often hindered by poor bioavailability and stability. Phytosome technology enhances the absorption and efficacy of these compounds by integrating vesicular systems like liposomes, niosomes, transfersomes, and ethosomes. Phytosomes offer diverse biological benefits, including cardiovascular protection through improved endothelial function and oxidative stress reduction. They enhance cognitive function and protect against neurodegenerative diseases in the nervous system, aid digestion and reduce inflammation in the gastrointestinal system, and provide hepatoprotective effects by enhancing liver detoxification and protection against toxins. In the genitourinary system, phytosomes improve renal function and exhibit anti-inflammatory properties. They also modulate the immune system by enhancing immune responses and reducing inflammation and oxidative stress. Additionally, phytosomes promote skin health by protecting against UV radiation and improving hydration and elasticity. Recent patented phytosome technologies have led to innovative formulations that improve the stability, bioavailability, and therapeutic efficacy of phytochemicals, although commercialization challenges like manufacturing scalability and regulatory hurdles remain. Secondary metabolites from natural products are classified into primary and secondary metabolites, with a significant focus on terpenoids, phenolic compounds, and nitrogen-containing compounds. These metabolites have notable biological activities: antimicrobial, antioxidant, antibiotic, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects. In summary, this review amalgamates the latest advancements in phytosome technology and secondary metabolite research, presenting a holistic view of their potential to advance therapeutic interventions and contribute to the ever-evolving landscape of natural product-based medicine.

Non-Invasive Delivery of Insulin for Breaching Hindrances against Diabetes

Insulin is recognized as a crucial weapon in managing diabetes. Subcutaneous (s.c.) injections are the traditional approach for insulin administration, which usually have many limitations. Numerous alternative (non-invasive) slants through different routes have been explored by the researchers for making needle-free delivery of insulin for attaining its augmented absorption as well as bioavailability. The current review delineating numerous pros and cons of several novel approaches of non-invasive insulin delivery by overcoming many of their hurdles. Primary information on the topic was gathered by searching scholarly articles from PubMed added with extraction of data from auxiliary manuscripts. Many approaches (discussed in the article) are meant for the delivery of a safe, effective, stable, and patient friendly administration of insulin via buccal, oral, inhalational, transdermal, intranasal, ocular, vaginal and rectal routes. Few of them have proven their clinical efficacy for maintaining the glycemic levels, whereas others are under the investigational pipe line. The developed products are comprising of many advanced micro/nano composite technologies and few of them might be entering into the market in near future, thereby garnishing the hopes of millions of diabetics who are under the network of s.c. insulin injections.

Transferosomes as a transdermal drug delivery system: Dermal kinetics and recent developments

The development of innovative approaches to deliver medications has been growing now for the last few decades and generates a growing interest in the dermatopharmaceutical field. Transdermal drug delivery in particular, remains an attractive alternative route for many therapeutics. However, due to the limitations posed by the barrier properties of the stratum corneum, the delivery of many pharmaceutical dosage forms remains a challenge. Most successful therapies using the transdermal route have been ones containing smaller lipophilic molecules with molecular weights of a few hundred Daltons. To overcome these limitations of size and lipophilicity of the drugs, transferosomes have emerged as a successful tool for transdermal delivery of a variety of therapeutics including hydrophilic actives, larger molecules, peptides, proteins, and nucleic acids. Transferosomes exhibit a flexible structure and higher surface hydrophilicity which both play a critical role in the transport of drugs and other solutes using hydration gradients as a driving force to deliver the molecules into and across the skin. This results in enhanced overall permeation as well as controlled release of the drug in the skin layers. Additionally, the physical-chemical properties of the transferosomes provide increased stability by preventing degradation of the actives by oxidation, light, and temperature. Here, we present the history of transferosomes from solid lipid nanoparticles and liposomes, their physical-chemical properties, dermal kinetics, and their recent advances as marketed dosage forms. This article is categorized under: Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Lipid-Based Structures Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

The characteristics and biological activity enhancements of melatonin encapsulations for skin care product applications

Melatonin (MLT) exhibits antioxidant, ultraviolet protection, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging properties. However, its effectiveness is limited by instability, a short half-life, and incompatible absorption. In this research, we encapsulated melatonin (MLT) in transfersomes (MT) and niosomes (MN) to enhance their properties and investigate their effects through in vitro cell assays using murine macrophages cells and human foreskin fibroblasts cells. The vesicle morphology, vesicle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency (EE%), attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) spectra, along with in vitro release, permeation profiles, and stability study were also evaluated. The results showed that both encapsulations displayed spherical morphology at the nanometric scale, their great physical stability and provided an EE% range of 58-78%. The MLT incorporation into the vesicle was confirmed by the ATR-FTIR spectra. Additionally, the encapsulation' release profiles fitted with the Higuchi model, indicating controlled release of melatonin. Furthermore, MT showed greater permeability than MN and MS including melatonin deposition. In cell assays, MT exhibited significantly higher nitric oxide inhibition and stimulation of collagen compared to MN and MS. Therefore, MT demonstrated the highest possibility for anti-inflammatory and collagen-stimulating activities that could be applied in pharmaceutical or anti-aging cosmetic products.

Design, optimization, and characterization of Althaea officinalis-loaded transliposomes for the treatment of atopic dermatitis: a Box Behnken Design, in vitro, and ex vivo study

A chronic skin disorder called atopic dermatitis (AD) is brought on by the deterioration of the skin's barrier function marked by inflammation, dryness, and bacterial infection along with immunological changes. Althaea officinalis (AO), known for its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties, has been explored as a potential treatment for AD. This study aimed to develop and evaluate a novel transliposomes (TL) formulation containing AO for AD treatment. Using rotary evaporation, AO-TL formulations were created and optimized employing Box Behnken Design. The optimized AO-TL formulation showed consistent characteristics: vesicle size of 145.8 nm, polydispersity index of 0.201, zeta potential of -28.22 mV, and entrapment efficiency of 86.21%. TEM imaging shows the spherical shapes of the vesicle. These findings demonstrate the formulation's stability and ability to encapsulate AO effectively. In vitro drug release studies revealed that the AO-TL formulation released 81.28% of the drug, outperforming conventional AO dispersion (56.80%). Additionally, when applied to rat skin, the TL gel demonstrated deeper penetration (30 μm) in comparison to the standard solution (5.0 μm) based on confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Ex vivo and dermatokinetics studies showed improved penetration of drug-loaded transliposomes gel in rat skin than the conventional AO gel. Overall, the optimized AO-TL formulation offers promising characteristics and performance for the topical treatment of AD. Its drug release, antioxidant activity, and deeper penetration suggest enhanced therapeutic effects. Further research and clinical trials are needed to validate its efficacy and safety in AD patients.

Nanotechnology-Based Drug Delivery Systems in the Transdermal Treatment of Melanoma

The incidence rate of melanoma is dramatically increasing worldwide, raising it to the fifth most common cancer in men and the sixth in women currently. Resistance generally occurs to the agents used in chemotherapy; besides their high toxicity destroys the normal cells. This study reviewed a detailed summary of the structure, advantages, and disadvantages of nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems in the treatment of melanoma, as well as some nanocarrier applications in animal models or clinical studies. Respective databases were searched for the target keywords and 93 articles were reviewed and discussed. A close study of the liposomes, niosomes, transferosomes, ethosomes, transethosomes, cubosomes, dendrimers, cyclodextrins, solid lipid nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) was conducted. It was found that these nanocarriers could inhibit metastasis and migration of melanoma cells and decrease cell viability. Conclusively, some nanocarriers like liposomes, niosomes, and transferosomes have been discussed as superior to conventional therapies for melanoma treatment.

Inorganic nanoparticles in dermopharmaceutical and cosmetic products: Properties, formulation development, toxicity, and regulatory issues

The use of nanotechnology strategies is a current hot topic, and research in this field has been growing significantly in the cosmetics industry. Inorganic nanoparticles stand out in this context for their distinctive physicochemical properties, leading in particular to an increased refractive index and absorption capacity giving them a broad potential for cutaneous applications and making them of special interest in research for dermopharmaceutical and cosmetic purposes. This performance is responsible for its heavy inclusion in the manufacture of skin health products such as sunscreens, lotions, beauty creams, skin ointments, makeup, and others. In particular, their suitable bandgap energy characteristics allow them to be used as photocatalytic semiconductors. They provide excellent UV absorption, commonly known as UV filters, and are responsible for their wide worldwide use in sunscreen formulations without the undesirable white residue after consumer application. In addition, cosmetics based on inorganic nanoparticles have several additional characteristics relevant to formulation development, such as being less expensive compared to other nanomaterials, having greater stability, and ensuring less irritation, itching, and propensity for skin allergies. This review will address in detail the main inorganic nanoparticles used in dermopharmaceutical and cosmetic products, such as titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, silicon dioxide, silver, gold, copper, and aluminum nanoparticles, nanocrystals, and quantum dots, reporting their physicochemical characteristics, but also their additional intrinsic properties that contribute to their use in this type of formulations. Safety issues regarding inorganic nanoparticles, based on toxicity studies, both to humans and the environment, as well as regulatory affairs associated with their use in dermopharmaceuticals and cosmetics, will be addressed.

Formulation of Transliposomal Nanocarrier Gel Containing Strychnine for the Effective Management of Skin Cancer

Strychnine (STCN) has demonstrated an exceptional anticancer effect against various cancers. However, the STCN clinical utility has been hampered by its low water solubility, restricted therapeutic window, short half-life, and significant toxicity. The objective of this investigation was to design and optimize a formulation of strychnine-loaded transliposomes (STCN-TLs) for dermal administration of STCN to treat skin cancer. The formulations of STCN-TL were examined in terms of vesicle size (VS), polydispersity index (PDI), entrapment efficiency (EE), and in vitro delivery. The improved STCN-TL formulation exhibited VS, PDI, EE, and in vitro delivery of 101.5 ± 2.14 nm, 0.218 ± 0.12, 81.74 ± 1.43%, and 85.39 ± 2.33%, respectively. In an ex vivo penetration, the created STCN-TL formulation demonstrated a 2.5-fold increase in permeability compared to the STCN solution. CLSM pictures of skin (rat) revealed that the rhodamine B-loaded transliposome preparation penetrated deeper than the rhodamine B hydroalcoholic mixture. Additionally, rat skin managed with STCN-TL nanogel exhibited a significant increase in Cskin max and AUC0-8 compared to rat skin treated with traditional STCN gel. The findings demonstrated that the transliposome preparation might be a suitable nanocarrier for the cutaneous distribution of STCN in the amelioration of skin cancer.

Phloretin Transfersomes for Transdermal Delivery: Design, Optimization, and In Vivo Evaluation

BACKGROUND

Phloretin (Phl) is a flavonoid compound that contains multiple phenolic hydroxyl groups. It is found in many plants, such as apple leaves, lychee pericarp, and begonia, and has various biological activities, such as antioxidant and anticancer effects. The strong hydrogen bonding between Phl molecules results in poor water solubility and low bioavailability, and thus the scope of the clinical application of Phl is limited. Therefore, it is particularly important to improve the water solubility of Phl for its use to further combat or alleviate skin aging and oxidative damage and develop antioxidant products for the skin. The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate a phloretin transfersome gel (PTG) preparation for transdermal drug delivery to improve the bioavailability of the drug and delay aging.

METHODS

Phloretin transfersomes (Phl-TFs) were prepared and optimized by the thin-film dispersion-ultrasonication method. Phl-TFs were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The Log P method was used to determine the solubility of the Phl-TFs. The skin penetration ability of the prepared PTG was evaluated using the Franz diffusion cell method. In addition, the in vivo pharmacokinetics of PTG were studied in rats, and an antioxidant activity investigation was conducted using a D-gal rat model.

RESULTS

Phl-TFs were successfully prepared with a Soybean Phosphatidylcholine (SPC)/CHOL ratio of 2.7:1 w/v, a phloretin concentration of 1.3 mg/mL, a hydration time of 46 min, an ultrasound time of 5 min, and an ultrasound power of 180 W. The Log P was 2.26, which was significantly higher than that of phloretin (p < 0.05, paired t test). The results of the in vitro penetration test demonstrated that the cumulative skin penetration of the Phl-TFs after 24 h was 842.73 ± 20.86 μg/cm2. The data from an in vivo pharmacokinetic study showed that the Cmax and AUC of PTG were 1.39- and 1.97-fold higher than those of the phloretin solution gel (PSG), respectively (p < 0.05, paired t test). The experimental results in aging rats showed that PTG had a better antioxidant effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Phl-TFs and PTG preparations with a good shape, safety, and stability were successfully prepared. In vivo pharmacokinetics and preliminary antioxidant experiments further verified the transdermal penetration and antioxidant activity of the phloretin transdermal drug delivery preparation, providing an experimental basis for its further development.

Probing the elastic response of lipid bilayers and nanovesicles to leaflet tensions via volume per lipid

Biological and biomimetic membranes are based on lipid bilayers, consisting of two monolayers or leaflets. One important but challenging physical parameter of these membranes is their tension. For a long time, this tension was explicitly or implicitly taken to be the bilayer tension, acting on the whole bilayer membrane. More recently, it has been realized that it is useful to decompose the bilayer tension into two leaflet tensions and that these tensions are accessible to molecular dynamics simulations. To divide the bilayer up into two leaflets, it is necessary to introduce a midsurface that defines the spatial extent of the two leaflets. In previous studies, this midsurface was obtained from the density profiles across the bilayer and was then used to compute the molecular area per lipid. Here, we develop an alternative approach based on three-dimensional Voronoi tessellation and molecular volume per lipid. Using this volume-based approach, we determine the reference states with tensionless leaflets as well as the optimal volumes and areas per lipid. The optimal lipid volumes have practically the same value in both leaflets, irrespective of the size and curvature of the nanovesicles, whereas the optimal lipid areas are different for the two leaflets and depend on the vesicle size. In addition, we introduce lateral volume compressibilities to describe the elastic response of the lipid volume to the leaflet tensions. We show that the outer leaflet of a nanovesicle is more densely packed and less compressible than the inner leaflet and that this difference becomes more pronounced for smaller vesicles.

Advances in transdermal siRNAs delivery: A review of current research progress

Small interfering RNA (siRNAs) is a double-stranded RNA molecule which can hybridize with a specific mRNA sequence and block the translation of numerous genes to regulate endogenous genes and to defend the genome from invasive nucleic acids. The use of siRNAs has been studied as a treatment option for various skin conditions. One of the main obstacles in the dermal or transdermal delivery of this compound is low skin permeability, and application is limited by its negative charge, high polarity, susceptibility to degradation by nucleases, and difficulty in penetrating the skin barrier. Effective delivery of therapeutic biomolecules to their target is a challenging issue, which can be solved by innovations in drug delivery systems and lead to improvement of the efficiency of many new biopharmaceuticals. Designing of novel transdermal delivery systems garnered tremendous attention in both cosmeceutical and pharmaceutical research and industries, which offers a number of advantages. Developing safe and efficient siRNAs delivery vectors is essential for effective treatment of skin diseases. In recent years, significant progress has been made in the creation of delivery systems using lipids, polymers, cell-penetrating peptides, nanoparticles and other biologically active agents. In this review we will focus on the recent advancements in transdermal siRNAs delivery vectors, such as liposomes, dendrimers, cell-penetrating peptides, and spherical nucleic acid nanoparticles.

Advance and Challenges in the Treatment of Skin Diseases with the Transdermal Drug Delivery System

Skin diseases are among the most prevalent non-fatal conditions worldwide. The transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS) has emerged as a promising approach for treating skin diseases, owing to its numerous advantages such as high bioavailability, low systemic toxicity, and improved patient compliance. However, the effectiveness of the TDDS is hindered by several factors, including the barrier properties of the stratum corneum, the nature of the drug and carrier, and delivery conditions. In this paper, we provide an overview of the development of the TDDS from first-generation to fourth-generation systems, highlighting the characteristics of each carrier in terms of mechanism composition, penetration method, mechanism of action, and recent preclinical studies. We further investigated the significant challenges encountered in the development of the TDDS and the crucial significance of clinical trials.

Natamycin Ocular Delivery: Challenges and Advancements in Ocular Therapeutics

Fungal keratitis, an ocular fungal infection, is one of the leading causes of monocular blindness. Natamycin has long been considered the mainstay drug used for treating fungal keratitis and is the only US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA)-approved drug, commercially available as a topical 5% w/v suspension. Furthermore, ocular fungal infection treatment takes a few weeks to months to recover, and the available marketed antifungal suspensions are associated with poor residence time, limited bioavailability (< 5%) and high dosing frequency as well as minor irritation and discomfort. Despite these challenges, natamycin is still the preferred drug choice for treating fungal keratitis, as it has fewer side effects and less ocular toxicity and is more effective against Fusarium species than other antifungal agents. Several novel therapeutic approaches for the topical delivery of natamycin have been reported to overcome the challenges posed by the conventional dosage forms and to improve ocular bioavailability for the efficient management of fungal keratitis. Current progress in the delivery systems uses approaches aimed at improving the corneal residence time, bioavailability and antifungal potency, thereby reducing the dose and dosing frequency of natamycin. In this review, we discuss the various strategies explored to overcome the challenges present in ocular drug delivery of natamycin and improve its bioavailability for ocular therapeutics.

Overview of phytosomes in treating cancer: Advancement, challenges, and future outlook

One of the major causes of death on the globe is cancer. It has remained a significant obstacle for current therapies and has not yet been effectively treated. Conventional treatment strategies available for cancer such as surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy etc. have severe adverse effects. The use of herbal active constituents in cancer treatment has tremendous potential to increase the effectiveness of conventional cancer therapy. Natural plant active components have been reported to have strong in vitro pharmacological activity but narrow in vivo absorption. In order to increase their bioavailability and absorption and get around the drawbacks and negative effects of traditional herbal extracts, Phytosomes are one of the growing nanotechnologies that can be used to improve the miscibility of bioactive phytoconstituents in lipid-rich barriers and overcome their poor bioavailability. Many novel drug delivery carriers are employed for targeted delivery of phytoconstituent at the site of action. Phytosomes are well-known biocompatible nanocarriers that can be employed to increase the solubility and permeability of phytopharmaceuticals among various novel drug delivery systems (NDDS). This review mainly focused on various conventional as well as novel approaches and various Nano carrier used in cancer therapies. Also comprising summary of the most recent research on the development and use of phytosomes as a better carrier for herbal constituents in the treatment of cancer. Additionally provides information about the formulation, characterization technique and mechanism of drug release from phytosome. Some of the major herbal active constituents made of phytosome which have shown proven anticancer activity are also studied. Finally, challenges and future perspective related to phytosome in cancer treatment are also discussed.

Leaflet Tensions Control the Spatio-Temporal Remodeling of Lipid Bilayers and Nanovesicles

Biological and biomimetic membranes are based on lipid bilayers, which consist of two monolayers or leaflets. To avoid bilayer edges, which form when the hydrophobic core of such a bilayer is exposed to the surrounding aqueous solution, a single bilayer closes up into a unilamellar vesicle, thereby separating an interior from an exterior aqueous compartment. Synthetic nanovesicles with a size below 100 nanometers, traditionally called small unilamellar vesicles, have emerged as potent platforms for the delivery of drugs and vaccines. Cellular nanovesicles of a similar size are released from almost every type of living cell. The nanovesicle morphology has been studied by electron microscopy methods but these methods are limited to a single snapshot of each vesicle. Here, we review recent results of molecular dynamics simulations, by which one can monitor and elucidate the spatio-temporal remodeling of individual bilayers and nanovesicles. We emphasize the new concept of leaflet tensions, which control the bilayers' stability and instability, the transition rates of lipid flip-flops between the two leaflets, the shape transformations of nanovesicles, the engulfment and endocytosis of condensate droplets and rigid nanoparticles, as well as nanovesicle adhesion and fusion. To actually compute the leaflet tensions, one has to determine the bilayer's midsurface, which represents the average position of the interface between the two leaflets. Two particularly useful methods to determine this midsurface are based on the density profile of the hydrophobic lipid chains and on the molecular volumes.

Delivery of Immunomodulators: Challenges and Novel Approaches

&nbsp;Immunomodulators can be either synthetic in origin or naturally obtained. Natural plant-based compounds can influence the immune system by either affecting antibody secretion to control the infection or affecting the functions of immune cells, thus contributing to maintaining immune homeostasis. Phytochemicals in plants, such as polysaccharides, lactones, flavonoids, alkaloids, diterpenoids and glycosides, have been reported to possess immunomodulating properties. However, there are many challenges limiting the clinical use of natural immunomodulators. In this chapter, we have discussed in detail standardization, formulation development, route of administration and regulatory concerns of natural immunomodulators. In order to overcome these challenges and ensure that natural immunomodulators reach the target site at therapeutic concentrations, different polymer and lipid-based nanocarrier delivery systems have been developed. These nanocarriers by virtue of their size, can easily penetrate and reach the target site and deliver the drugs. Many nanocarriers like liposomes, niosomes, nanoparticles, microemulsions, phytosomes and other vesicular systems designed for natural immunomodulators are discussed in this chapter.<br>

Gel Formulations for Topical Treatment of Skin Cancer: A Review

Skin cancer, with all its variations, is the most common type of cancer worldwide. Chemotherapy by topical application is an attractive strategy because of the ease of application and non-invasiveness. At the same time, the delivery of antineoplastic agents through the skin is difficult because of their challenging physicochemical properties (solubility, ionization, molecular weight, melting point) and the barrier function of the stratum corneum. Various approaches have been applied in order to improve drug penetration, retention, and efficacy. This systematic review aims at identifying the most commonly used techniques for topical drug delivery by means of gel-based topical formulations in skin cancer treatment. The excipients used, the preparation approaches, and the methods characterizing gels are discussed in brief. The safety aspects are also highlighted. The combinatorial formulation of nanocarrier-loaded gels is also reviewed from the perspective of improving drug delivery characteristics. Some limitations and drawbacks in the identified strategies are also outlined and considered within the future scope of topical chemotherapy.

Formulation Development, Optimization by Box-Behnken Design, and In Vitro and Ex Vivo Characterization of Hexatriacontane-Loaded Transethosomal Gel for Antimicrobial Treatment for Skin Infections

There are many different infections and factors that can lead to skin illnesses, but bacteria and fungi are the most frequent. The goal of this study was to develop a hexatriacontane-loaded transethosome (HTC-TES) for treating skin conditions caused by microbes. The HTC-TES was developed utilizing the rotary evaporator technique, and Box-Behnken design (BBD) was utilized to improve it. The responses chosen were particle size (nm) (Y1), polydispersity index (PDI) (Y2), and entrapment efficiency (Y3), while the independent variables chosen were lipoid (mg) (A), ethanol (%) (B), and sodium cholate (mg) (C). The optimized TES formulation with code F1, which contains lipoid (mg) (A) 90, ethanol (%) (B) 25, and sodium cholate (mg) (C) 10, was chosen. Furthermore, the generated HTC-TES was used for research on confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), dermatokinetics, and in vitro HTC release. The results of the study reveal that the ideal formulation of the HTC-loaded TES had the following characteristics: 183.9 nm, 0.262 mV, -26.61 mV, and 87.79% particle size, PDI, and entrapment efficiency, respectively. An in vitro study on HTC release found that the rates of HTC release for HTC-TES and conventional HTC suspension were 74.67 ± 0.22 and 38.75 ± 0.23, respectively. The release of hexatriacontane from TES fit the Higuchi model the best, and the Korsmeyer-Peppas model indicates the release of HTC followed a non-Fickian diffusion. By having a higher negative value for cohesiveness, the produced gel formulation demonstrated its stiffness, whereas good spreadability indicated better gel application to the surface. In a dermatokinetics study, it was discovered that TES gel considerably increased HTC transport in the epidermal layers (p < 0.05) when compared to HTC conventional formulation gel (HTC-CFG). The CLSM of rat skin treated with the rhodamine B-loaded TES formulation demonstrated a deeper penetration of 30.0 µm in comparison to the hydroalcoholic rhodamine B solution (0.15 µm). The HTC-loaded transethosome was determined to be an effective inhibitor of pathogenic bacterial growth (S. aureus and E. coli) at a concentration of 10 mg/mL. It was discovered that both pathogenic strains were susceptible to free HTC. According to the findings, HTC-TES gel can be employed to enhance therapeutic outcomes through antimicrobial activity.

Incorporation of acridine orange and methylene blue in Langmuir monolayers mimicking releasing nanostructures

The efficiency of methylene blue (MB) and acridine orange (AO) for photodynamic therapy (PDT) is increased if encapsulated in liposomes. In this paper we determine the molecular-level interactions between MB or AO and mixed monolayers of 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC), 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) (DPPG) and cholesterol (CHOL) using surface pressure isotherms and polarization-modulated infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS). To increase liposome stability, the effects from adding the surfactants Span® 80 and sodium cholate were also studied. Both MB and AO induce an expansion in the mixed monolayer, but this expansion is less significant in the presence of either Span® 80 or sodium cholate. The action of AO and MB occurred via coupling with phosphate groups of DPPC or DPPG. However, the levels of chain ordering and hydration of carbonyl and phosphate in headgroups depended on the photosensitizer and on the presence of Span® 80 or sodium cholate. From the PM-IRRAS spectra, we inferred that incorporation of MB and AO increased hydration of the monolayer headgroup, except for the case of the monolayer containing sodium cholate. This variability in behaviour offers an opportunity to tune the incorporation of AO and MB into liposomes which could be exploited in the release necessary for PDT.

Permeability-Enhanced Liposomal Emulgel Formulation of 5-Fluorouracil for the Treatment of Skin Cancer

The plain 5-fluorouracil (5FU) formulations available in the market are associated with adverse effects such as skin irritation, pruritus, redness, blisters, allergy, and dryness on the site of application. The objective of the present study was to develop a liposomal emulgel of 5FU with increased skin permeability and efficacy using clove oil and eucalyptus oil along with pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, excipients, stabilizers, binders, and additives. A series of seven formulations were developed and evaluated for their entrapment efficiency, in vitro release profile, and cumulative drug release profile. The compatibility of drugs and excipients, as confirmed by FTIR (fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy) and DSC (differential scanning calorimetry) as well as SEM (scanning electron microscopy) and TEM (transmission electron microscopy) studies, revealed that the size and shape of liposomes are smooth and spherical, and the liposomes are non-aggregated. To understand their efficacy, the optimized formulations were evaluated for cytotoxicity using B16-F10 mouse skin melanoma cells. The eucalyptus oil and clove oil-containing preparation significantly produced a cytotoxic effect against a melanoma cell line. The addition of clove oil and eucalyptus oil increased the efficacy of the formulation by improving skin permeability and reducing the dose required for the anti-skin cancer activity.

Formulation Strategies for Enhancing Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Potential of Sesamol: A Natural Phenolic Bioactive

Natural plants and their products continue to be the major source of phytoconstituents in food and therapeutics. Scientific studies have evidenced the benefits of sesame oil and its bioactives in various health conditions. Various bioactives present in it include sesamin, sasamolin, sesaminol, and sesamol; among these, sesamol represents a major constituent. This bioactive is responsible for preventing various diseases including cancer, hepatic disorders, cardiac ailments, and neurological diseases. In the last decade, the application of sesamol in the management of various disorders has attracted the increasing interest of the research community. Owing to its prominent pharmacological activities, such as antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antineoplastic, and antimicrobial, sesamol has been explored for the above-mentioned disorders. However, despite the above-mentioned therapeutic potential, its clinical utility is mainly hindered owing to low solubility, stability, bioavailability, and rapid clearance issues. In this regard, numerous strategies have been explored to surpass these restrictions with the formulation of novel carrier platforms. This review aims to describe the various reports and summarize the different pharmacological activities of sesamol. Furthermore, one part of this review is devoted to formulating strategies to improve sesamol's challenges. To resolve the issues such as the stability, low bioavailability, and high systemic clearance of sesamol, novel carrier systems have been developed to open a new avenue to utilize this bioactive as an efficient first-line treatment for various diseases.

Skin drug delivery using lipid vesicles: A starting guideline for their development

Lipid vesicles can provide a cost-effective enhancement of skin drug absorption when vesicle production process is optimised. It is an important challenge to design the ideal vesicle, since their properties and features are related, as changes in one affect the others. Here, we review the main components, preparation and characterization methods commonly used, and the key properties that lead to highly efficient vesicles for transdermal drug delivery purposes. We stand by size, deformability degree and drug loading, as the most important vesicle features that determine the further transdermal drug absorption. The interest in this technology is increasing, as demonstrated by the exponential growth of publications on the topic. Although long-term preservation and scalability issues have limited the commercialization of lipid vesicle products, freeze-drying and modern escalation methods overcome these difficulties, thus predicting a higher use of these technologies in the market and clinical practice.

Current Advances in Lipid Nanosystems Intended for Topical and Transdermal Drug Delivery Applications

Skin delivery is an exciting and challenging field. It is a promising approach for effective drug delivery due to its ease of administration, ease of handling, high flexibility, controlled release, prolonged therapeutic effect, adaptability, and many other advantages. The main associated challenge, however, is low skin permeability. The skin is a healthy barrier that serves as the body's primary defence mechanism against foreign particles. New advances in skin delivery (both topical and transdermal) depend on overcoming the challenges associated with drug molecule permeation and skin irritation. These limitations can be overcome by employing new approaches such as lipid nanosystems. Due to their advantages (such as easy scaling, low cost, and remarkable stability) these systems have attracted interest from the scientific community. However, for a successful formulation, several factors including particle size, surface charge, components, etc. have to be understood and controlled. This review provided a brief overview of the structure of the skin as well as the different pathways of nanoparticle penetration. In addition, the main factors influencing the penetration of nanoparticles have been highlighted. Applications of lipid nanosystems for dermal and transdermal delivery, as well as regulatory aspects, were critically discussed.

Transport of hydrocortisone in targeted layers of the skin by multi-lamellar liposomes

Hydrocortisone (HyC), a hydrophobic pharmaceutical active, was encapsulated in multi-lamellar liposomes (MLLs) composed of P100, a mixture of phospholipids, and Tween®80. Three different HyC-loaded formulations were designed to target the stratum corneum, the living epidermis and the hypodermis. The impact of encapsulation on their size, elasticity and zeta potential, the three key factors controlling MLLs skin penetration, was studied. Raman mapping of phospholipids and HyC allowed the localisation of both components inside an artificial skin, Strat-M®, demonstrating the efficiency of the targeting. Percutaneous permeation profiles through excised human skin were performed over 48 h, supporting results on artificial skin. Their modelling revealed that HyC encapsulated in MLLs, designed to target the stratum corneum and living epidermis, exhibited a non-Fickian diffusion process. In contrast, a Fickian diffusion was found for HyC administered in solution, in a pharmaceutical cream and in transdermal MLLs. These results allowed us to propose a mechanism of interaction between HyC-containing MLLs and the skin.