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Alemany M. Estrogens and the regulation of glucose metabolism. World J Diabetes 2021; 12:1622-1654. [PMID: 34754368 PMCID: PMC8554369 DOI: 10.4239/wjd.v12.i10.1622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The main estrogens: estradiol, estrone, and their acyl-esters have been studied essentially related to their classical estrogenic and pharmacologic functions. However, their main effect in the body is probably the sustained control of core energy metabolism. Estrogen nuclear and membrane receptors show an extraordinary flexibility in the modulation of metabolic responses, and largely explain gender and age differences in energy metabolism: part of these mechanisms is already sufficiently known to justify both. With regard to energy, the estrogen molecular species act essentially through four key functions: (1) Facilitation of insulin secretion and control of glucose availability; (2) Modulation of energy partition, favoring the use of lipid as the main energy substrate when more available than carbohydrates; (3) Functional protection through antioxidant mechanisms; and (4) Central effects (largely through neural modulation) on whole body energy management. Analyzing the different actions of estrone, estradiol and their acyl esters, a tentative classification based on structure/effects has been postulated. Either separately or as a group, estrogens provide a comprehensive explanation that not all their quite diverse actions are related solely to specific molecules. As a group, they constitute a powerful synergic action complex. In consequence, estrogens may be considered wardens of energy homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marià Alemany
- Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Catalonia, Spain
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Remesar X, Alemany M. Dietary Energy Partition: The Central Role of Glucose. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E7729. [PMID: 33086579 PMCID: PMC7593952 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21207729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans have developed effective survival mechanisms under conditions of nutrient (and energy) scarcity. Nevertheless, today, most humans face a quite different situation: excess of nutrients, especially those high in amino-nitrogen and energy (largely fat). The lack of mechanisms to prevent energy overload and the effective persistence of the mechanisms hoarding key nutrients such as amino acids has resulted in deep disorders of substrate handling. There is too often a massive untreatable accumulation of body fat in the presence of severe metabolic disorders of energy utilization and disposal, which become chronic and go much beyond the most obvious problems: diabetes, circulatory, renal and nervous disorders included loosely within the metabolic syndrome. We lack basic knowledge on diet nutrient dynamics at the tissue-cell metabolism level, and this adds to widely used medical procedures lacking sufficient scientific support, with limited or nil success. In the present longitudinal analysis of the fate of dietary nutrients, we have focused on glucose as an example of a largely unknown entity. Even most studies on hyper-energetic diets or their later consequences tend to ignore the critical role of carbohydrate (and nitrogen disposal) as (probably) the two main factors affecting the substrate partition and metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Remesar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine Faculty of Biology, University Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain;
- IBUB Institute of Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Obesity and Nutrition, Institute of Health Carlos III, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marià Alemany
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine Faculty of Biology, University Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain;
- IBUB Institute of Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Obesity and Nutrition, Institute of Health Carlos III, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
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Rotondo F, Ho-Palma AC, Romero MDM, Remesar X, Fernández-López JA, Alemany M. Higher lactate production from glucose in cultured adipose nucleated stromal cells than for rat adipocytes. Adipocyte 2019; 8:61-76. [PMID: 30676233 PMCID: PMC6768231 DOI: 10.1080/21623945.2019.1569448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
White adipose tissue (WAT) nucleated stromal cells (NSC) play important roles in regulation, defense, regeneration and metabolic control. In WAT sites, the proportions and functions of NSC change under diverse physiological or pathologic conditions. We had previously observed the massive anaerobic wasting of glucose to lactate and glycerol in rat epididymal adipocytes. To test site variability, and whether the adipocyte extensive anaerobic metabolism of glucose was found in NSC, we analyzed, in parallel, subcutaneous, mesenteric and epididymal WAT of male adult Wistar rats. Adipocytes and NSC fractions, were isolated, counted and incubated (as well as red blood cells: RBC) with glucose, and their ability to use glucose and produce lactate, glycerol, and free fatty acids was measured. Results were computed taking into account the number of cells present in WAT samples. Cell numbers were found in proportions close to 1:13:100 (respectively, for adipocytes, NSC and RBC) but their volumes followed a reversed pattern: 7,500:10:1. When counting only non-fat cell volumes, the ratios changed dramatically to 100:10:1. RBC contribution to lactate production was practically insignificant. In most samples, NSC produced more lactate than adipocytes did, but only adipocytes secreted glycerol (and fatty acids in smaller amounts). Glucose consumption was also highest in NSC, especially in mesenteric WAT. The heterogeneous NSC showed a practically anaerobic metabolism (like that already observed in adipocytes). Thus, NSC quantitative production of lactate markedly contributed (i.e. more than adipocytes) to WAT global use (wasting) of glucose. We also confirmed that glucose-derived glycerol is exclusively produced by adipocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Floriana Rotondo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ana-Cecilia Ho-Palma
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - María del Mar Romero
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER-OBN Research Web, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xavier Remesar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER-OBN Research Web, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Antonio Fernández-López
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER-OBN Research Web, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marià Alemany
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER-OBN Research Web, Barcelona, Spain
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Rotondo F, Ho-Palma AC, Remesar X, Fernández-López JA, Romero MDM, Alemany M. Effect of sex on glucose handling by adipocytes isolated from rat subcutaneous, mesenteric and perigonadal adipose tissue. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5440. [PMID: 30128201 PMCID: PMC6089212 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Adult rat epididymal adipocytes are able to convert large amounts of glucose to lactate and glycerol. However, fatty acid efflux is much lower than that expected from glycerol levels if they were the product of lipolysis. Use of glucose for lipogenesis is limited, in contrast with the active glycolysis-derived lactate (and other 3-carbon substrates). In this study, we analyzed whether white adipose tissue (WAT) site and sex affect these processes. Methods Mature adipocytes from perigonadal, mesenteric and subcutaneous WAT of female and male rats were isolated, and incubated with 7 or 14 mM glucose during 1 or 2 days. Glucose consumption, metabolite efflux and gene expression of glycolytic and lipogenesis-related genes were measured. Results The effects of medium initial glucose concentration were minimal on most parameters studied. Sex-induced differences that were more extensive; however, the most marked, distinct, effects between WAT sites, were dependent on the time of incubation. In general, the production of lactate was maintained during the incubation, but glycerol release rates increased with time, shifting from a largely glycolytic origin to its triacylglycerol (TAG) lipolytic release. Glycerol incorporation was concurrent with increased TAG turnover: lipolytic glycerol was selectively secreted, while most fatty acids were recycled again into TAG. Fatty acid efflux increased with incubation, but was, nevertheless, minimal compared with that of glycerol. Production of lactate and glycerol from glucose were maximal in mesenteric WAT. Discussion Female rats showed a higher adipocyte metabolic activity than males. In mesenteric WAT, gene expression (and substrate efflux) data suggested that adipocyte oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA was higher in females than in males, with enhanced return of oxaloacetate to the cytoplasm for its final conversion to lactate. WAT site differences showed marked tissue specialization-related differences. Use of glucose for lipogenesis was seriously hampered over time, when TAG turnover-related lipolysis was activated. We postulate that these mechanisms may help decrease glycaemia and fat storage, producing, instead, a higher availability of less-regulated 3-carbon substrates, used for energy elsewhere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Floriana Rotondo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Faculty of Biology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ana Cecilia Ho-Palma
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Faculty of Biology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xavier Remesar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Faculty of Biology, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,CIBER OBN, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red: Obesidad y Nutrición, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Antonio Fernández-López
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Faculty of Biology, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,CIBER OBN, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red: Obesidad y Nutrición, Barcelona, Spain
| | - María Del Mar Romero
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Faculty of Biology, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,CIBER OBN, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red: Obesidad y Nutrición, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marià Alemany
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Faculty of Biology, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,CIBER OBN, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red: Obesidad y Nutrición, Barcelona, Spain
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