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Bouillaud F, Ransy C, Moreau M, Benhaim J, Lombès A, Haouzi P. Methylene blue induced O 2 consumption is not dependent on mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation: Implications for salvage pathways during acute mitochondrial poisoning. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2022; 304:103939. [PMID: 35777722 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2022.103939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/26/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
While administration of the cyclic redox agent methylene blue (MB) during intoxication by mitochondrial poisons (cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, rotenone) increases survival, the mechanisms behind these antidotal properties remain poorly understood. The objective of the studies presented in this paper was to characterize the interactions between the redox properties of MB, the intermediate metabolism and the mitochondrial respiration. We first show that intra-venous administration of micromolar levels of methylene blue in sedated and mechanically ventilated rats, increases not only resting oxygen consumption but also CO2 production (by ~ 50%), with no change in their ratio. This hypermetabolic state could be reproduced in a cellular model, where we found that the rate of electron transfer to MB was of the same order of magnitude as that of normal cellular metabolism. Notably, the large increase in cellular oxygen consumption caused by MB was relatively indifferent to the status of the mitochondrial respiratory chain: oxygen consumption persisted even when the respiratory chain was inhibited or absent (using inhibitors and cells deficient in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation); yet MB did not impede mitochondrial ATP production in control conditions. We present evidence that after being reduced into leuco-methylene blue (LMB) in presence of reducing molecules that are physiologically found in cells (such as NADH), the re-oxidation of LMB by oxygen can account for the increased oxygen consumption observed in vivo. In conditions of acute mitochondrial dysfunction, these MB redox cycling properties allow the rescue of the glycolysis activity and Krebs cycle through an alternate route of oxidation of NADH (or other potential reduced molecules), which accumulation would have otherwise exerted negative feedback on these metabolic pathways. Our most intriguing finding is that re-oxidization of MB by oxygen ultimately results in an in vivo matching between the increase in the rate of O2 consumed, by MB re-oxidation, and the rate of CO2, produced by the intermediate metabolism, imitating the fundamental coupling between the glycolysis/Krebs cycle and the mitochondrial respiration.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Bouillaud
- Institut Cochin, INSERM, CNRS, Université Paris Cité, Paris, F75014, France.
| | - C Ransy
- Institut Cochin, INSERM, CNRS, Université Paris Cité, Paris, F75014, France
| | - M Moreau
- Institut Cochin, INSERM, CNRS, Université Paris Cité, Paris, F75014, France
| | - J Benhaim
- Institut Cochin, INSERM, CNRS, Université Paris Cité, Paris, F75014, France
| | - A Lombès
- Institut Cochin, INSERM, CNRS, Université Paris Cité, Paris, F75014, France
| | - P Haouzi
- Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA.
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Gureev AP, Sadovnikova IS, Popov VN. Molecular Mechanisms of the Neuroprotective Effect of Methylene Blue. BIOCHEMISTRY. BIOKHIMIIA 2022; 87:940-956. [PMID: 36180986 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297922090073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Methylene blue (MB) is the first fully synthetic compound that had found its way into medicine over 120 years ago as a treatment against malaria. MB has been approved for the treatment of methemoglobinemia, but there are premises for its repurposing as a neuroprotective agent based on the efficacy of this compound demonstrated in the models of Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's diseases, traumatic brain injury, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, depressive disorders, etc. However, the goal of this review was not so much to focus on the therapeutic effects of MB in the treatment of various neurodegeneration diseases, but to delve into the mechanisms of direct or indirect effect of this drug on the signaling pathways. MB can act as an alternative electron carrier in the mitochondrial respiratory chain in the case of dysfunctional electron transport chain. It also displays the anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects, inhibits monoamine oxidase (MAO) and nitric oxide synthase (NOS), activates signaling pathways involved in the mitochondrial pool renewal (mitochondrial biogenesis and autophagy), and prevents aggregation of misfolded proteins. Comprehensive understanding of all aspects of direct and indirect influence of MB, and not just some of its effects, can help in further research of this compound, including its clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artem P Gureev
- Voronezh State University, Voronezh, 394018, Russia.
- Voronezh State University of Engineering Technologies, 394036, Voronezh, Russia
| | | | - Vasily N Popov
- Voronezh State University, Voronezh, 394018, Russia
- Voronezh State University of Engineering Technologies, 394036, Voronezh, Russia
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Yamashoji S. Synergistic reduction of toluylene blue induced by acetaldehyde and menadione in yeast cell suspension: Application to determination of yeast cell activity. Biochem Biophys Rep 2017; 9:335-340. [PMID: 28956021 PMCID: PMC5614628 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2017.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Revised: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 01/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Membrane permeant acetaldehyde and menadione induced the synergistic reduction of toluylene blue (TB) acting as non-membrane permeant redox indicator in yeast cell suspension. NADH and acetaldehyde also induced the synergistic TB reduction in permeabilized yeast cells and phosphate buffer, but menadione had no ability to promote TB reduction. The pre-incubation of acetaldehyde inhibited the above synergistic reduction of TB in intact and permeabilized yeast cell suspension. The pre-incubation of acetaldehyde might promote NADH oxidation by alcohol dehydrogenase, because acetaldehyde decreased the intracellular NAD(P)H concentration. The above facts indicate that the synergistic reduction of TB is controlled by the order of addition of menadione and acetaldehyde. The synergistic reduction of TB by menadione and acetaldehyde was proportional to viable yeast cell number from 104 to 2×106 cells/ml, and this assay was applicable to cytotoxicity test. The time required for the above assay was only 2 min.
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Kettisen K, Bülow L, Sakai H. Potential electron mediators to extract electron energies of RBC glycolysis for prolonged in vivo functional lifetime of hemoglobin vesicles. Bioconjug Chem 2015; 26:746-54. [PMID: 25734688 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.5b00076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Developing a functional blood substitute as an alternative to donated blood for clinical use is believed to relieve present and future blood shortages, and to reduce the risks of infection and blood type mismatching. Hemoglobin vesicle (HbV) encapsulates a purified and concentrated human-derived Hb solution in a phospholipid vesicle (liposome). The in vivo safety and efficacy of HbV as a transfusion alternative have been clarified. Auto-oxidation of ferrous Hb in HbV gradually increases the level of ferric methemoglobin (metHb) and impairs the oxygen transport capabilities. The extension of the functional half-life of HbV has recently been proposed using an electron mediator, methylene blue (MB), which acts as a shuttle between red blood cells (RBC) and HbV. MB transfers electron energies of NAD(P)H, produced by RBC glycolysis, to metHb in HbV. Work presented here focuses on screening of 15 potential electron mediators, with appropriate redox potential and water solubility, for electron transfer from RBC to HbV. The results are assessed with regard to the chemical properties of the candidates. The compounds examined in this study were dimethyl methylene blue (DMB), methylene green, azure A, azure B, azure C, toluidine blue (TDB), thionin acetate, phenazine methosulfate, brilliant cresyl blue, cresyl violet, gallocyanine, toluylene blue, indigo carmine, indigotetrasulfonate, and MB. Six candidates were found to be unsuitable because of their insufficient diffusion across membranes, or overly high or nonexistent reactivity with relevant biomolecules. However, 9 displayed favorable metHb reduction. Among the suitable candidates, phenothiazines DMB and TDB exhibited effectiveness like MB did. In comparison to MB, they showed faster reduction by electron-donating NAD(P)H, coupled with showing a lower rate of reoxidation in the presence of molecular oxygen. Ascertaining the best electron mediator can provide a pathway for extending the lifetime and efficiency of potential blood substitutes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Kettisen
- †Department of Chemistry, Nara Medical University, Kashihara 634-8521, Japan.,‡Department of Pure and Applied Biochemistry, Lund University, 221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Leif Bülow
- ‡Department of Pure and Applied Biochemistry, Lund University, 221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Hiromi Sakai
- †Department of Chemistry, Nara Medical University, Kashihara 634-8521, Japan
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Bacterial community morphogenesis is intimately linked to the intracellular redox state. J Bacteriol 2013; 195:1371-80. [PMID: 23292774 DOI: 10.1128/jb.02273-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Many microbial species form multicellular structures comprising elaborate wrinkles and concentric rings, yet the rules governing their architecture are poorly understood. The opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa produces phenazines, small molecules that act as alternate electron acceptors to oxygen and nitrate to oxidize the intracellular redox state and that influence biofilm morphogenesis. Here, we show that the depth occupied by cells within colony biofilms correlates well with electron acceptor availability. Perturbations in the environmental provision, endogenous production, and utilization of electron acceptors affect colony development in a manner consistent with redox control. Intracellular NADH levels peak before the induction of colony wrinkling. These results suggest that redox imbalance is a major factor driving the morphogenesis of P. aeruginosa biofilms and that wrinkling itself is an adaptation that maximizes oxygen accessibility and thereby supports metabolic homeostasis. This type of redox-driven morphological change is reminiscent of developmental processes that occur in metazoans.
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Poteet E, Winters A, Yan LJ, Shufelt K, Green KN, Simpkins JW, Wen Y, Yang SH. Neuroprotective actions of methylene blue and its derivatives. PLoS One 2012; 7:e48279. [PMID: 23118969 PMCID: PMC3485214 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0048279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2012] [Accepted: 09/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Methylene blue (MB), the first lead chemical structure of phenothiazine and other derivatives, is commonly used in diagnostic procedures and as a treatment for methemoglobinemia. We have previously demonstrated that MB could function as an alternative mitochondrial electron transfer carrier, enhance cellular oxygen consumption, and provide protection in vitro and in rodent models of Parkinson's disease and stroke. In the present study, we investigated the structure-activity relationships of MB in vitro using MB and six structurally related compounds. MB reduces mitochondrial superoxide production via alternative electron transfer that bypasses mitochondrial complexes I-III. MB mitigates reactive free radical production and provides neuroprotection in HT-22 cells against glutamate, IAA and rotenone toxicity. Distinctly, MB provides no protection against direct oxidative stress induced by glucose oxidase. Substitution of a side chain at MB's 10-nitrogen rendered a 1000-fold reduction of the protective potency against glutamate neurototoxicity. Compounds without side chains at positions 3 and 7, chlorophenothiazine and phenothiazine, have distinct redox potentials compared to MB and are incapable of enhancing mitochondrial electron transfer, while obtaining direct antioxidant actions against glutamate, IAA, and rotenone insults. Chlorophenothiazine exhibited direct antioxidant actions in mitochondria lysate assay compared to MB, which required reduction by NADH and mitochondria. MB increased complex IV expression and activity, while 2-chlorphenothiazine had no effect. Our study indicated that MB could attenuate superoxide production by functioning as an alternative mitochondrial electron transfer carrier and as a regenerable anti-oxidant in mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan Poteet
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Institute for Alzheimer’s Disease and Aging Research, University of North Texas Health Science Center at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, Texas, United States of America
| | - Ali Winters
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Institute for Alzheimer’s Disease and Aging Research, University of North Texas Health Science Center at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, Texas, United States of America
| | - Liang-Jun Yan
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Institute for Alzheimer’s Disease and Aging Research, University of North Texas Health Science Center at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, Texas, United States of America
| | - Kyle Shufelt
- Department of Chemistry, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas, United States of America
| | - Kayla N. Green
- Department of Chemistry, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas, United States of America
| | - James W. Simpkins
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Institute for Alzheimer’s Disease and Aging Research, University of North Texas Health Science Center at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, Texas, United States of America
| | - Yi Wen
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Institute for Alzheimer’s Disease and Aging Research, University of North Texas Health Science Center at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, Texas, United States of America
| | - Shao-Hua Yang
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Institute for Alzheimer’s Disease and Aging Research, University of North Texas Health Science Center at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Rojas JC, Bruchey AK, Gonzalez-Lima F. Neurometabolic mechanisms for memory enhancement and neuroprotection of methylene blue. Prog Neurobiol 2011; 96:32-45. [PMID: 22067440 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2011.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2011] [Revised: 10/26/2011] [Accepted: 10/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This paper provides the first review of the memory-enhancing and neuroprotective metabolic mechanisms of action of methylene blue in vivo. These mechanisms have important implications as a new neurobiological approach to improve normal memory and to treat memory impairment and neurodegeneration associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. Methylene blue's action is unique because its neurobiological effects are not determined by regular drug-receptor interactions or drug-response paradigms. Methylene blue shows a hormetic dose-response, with opposite effects at low and high doses. At low doses, methylene blue is an electron cycler in the mitochondrial electron transport chain, with unparalleled antioxidant and cell respiration-enhancing properties that affect the function of the nervous system in a versatile manner. A major role of the respiratory enzyme cytochrome oxidase on the memory-enhancing effects of methylene blue is supported by available data. The memory-enhancing effects have been associated with improvement of memory consolidation in a network-specific and use-dependent fashion. In addition, low doses of methylene blue have also been used for neuroprotection against mitochondrial dysfunction in humans and experimental models of disease. The unique auto-oxidizing property of methylene blue and its pleiotropic effects on a number of tissue oxidases explain its potent neuroprotective effects at low doses. The evidence reviewed supports a mechanistic role of low-dose methylene blue as a promising and safe intervention for improving memory and for the treatment of acute and chronic conditions characterized by increased oxidative stress, neurodegeneration and memory impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio C Rojas
- Departments of Psychology, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station A8000, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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8
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McDonald AG, Tipton KF. Computer-Controlled System for the Study of Oxidase Reactions: Application to the Peroxidase−Oxidase Oscillator. J Phys Chem B 2010; 114:16244-52. [DOI: 10.1021/jp107188z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew G. McDonald
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Keith F. Tipton
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
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9
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Rojas JC, Gonzalez-Lima F. Mitochondrial optic neuropathy: In vivo model of neurodegeneration and neuroprotective strategies. Eye Brain 2010; 2:21-37. [PMID: 28539759 PMCID: PMC5436181 DOI: 10.2147/eb.s9363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
This review summarizes the characteristics of a rodent toxicologic model of optic neuropathy induced by the mitochondrial complex I inhibitor rotenone. This model has been developed to fulfill the demand for a drug-screening tool providing a sound mechanistic context to address the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. It features biochemical, structural, and functional retinal deficits that resemble those of patients with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, a mitochondrial disease characterized by selective degeneration of retinal ganglion cells, and for which an environmental component is believed to play a major triggering role. The available data support the efficiency, sensitivity, and versatility of the model for providing insights into the mechanisms of neurodegeneration, including mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and excitotoxicity. Screening work with this model has provided proof-of-principle that interventions targeting the electron transport chain, such as USP methylene blue and near-infrared light therapy, are effective at preventing neurodegeneration induced by mitochondrial dysfunction in vivo. Prospective developments of this model include the use of neuronal reporter genes for in vivo non-invasive assessment of retinal degeneration at different time points, and its combination with genetic approaches to elucidate the synergism of environmental and genetic factors in neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio C Rojas
- Departments of Psychology, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Francisco Gonzalez-Lima
- Departments of Psychology, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
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10
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Leuthardt F, Exer B. Über den Einfluss des Methylenblaus auf die Atmung der Lebermitochondrien. Helv Chim Acta 2004. [DOI: 10.1002/hlca.19530360220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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11
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Affiliation(s)
- D James Morré
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
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12
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13
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Butcher RG. Oxygen and the production of formazan from neotetrazolium chloride. HISTOCHEMISTRY 1978; 56:329-40. [PMID: 689923 DOI: 10.1007/bf00495994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Electrons, generated from dehydrogenase reactions, are transferred to oxygen in preference to neotetrazolium chloride. In model systems in solution the presence of a small amount of oxygen drastically reduces the rate of formazan production. The rate of reaction in tissue sections has been followed using scanning and integrating microdensitometry. As in solution, electrons are transferred preferentially to oxygen. However, oxygen seems unable to diffuse through the incubation medium and thus the supply of oxygen at the site of the enzyme activity becomes exhausted; the time taken to use up the oxygen will depend on the rate of the enzyme activity. It is only then that electrons are passed to the tetrazolium salt and formazan is precipitated.
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Abstract
The history of the tetrazolium salts and formazans goes back 100 years, to when Friese (1875) reacted benzene diazonium nitrate with nitromethane, to produce a cherry-red "Neue Verbindung". This was the first formazan. 19 years later, Von Pechmann and Runge (1894) oxidised a formazan to produce the first tetrazolium salt. Many hundreds of tetrazolium salts and formazans were prepared in the following years, but only a handful have found applications in biological research. This article has attempted to describe the properties of these compounds, and to illustrate how the tetrazolium salt-formazan reaction has been exploited to serve an extremely wide variety of functions.
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15
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Der Einflu� von Redoxindicatoren auf die S�urebildung von Streptococcus lactis. Arch Microbiol 1968. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00412129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Smith L. The excretory system of Panagrellus redivivus (T. Goodey, 1945). COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1965; 15:89-92. [PMID: 5841616 DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(65)90337-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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18
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LEMAN A. [STUDIES ON THE INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR REDOX POTENTIAL OF FERMENTING YEAST SUSPENSIONS]. ARCHIV FUR MIKROBIOLOGIE 1965; 50:194-210. [PMID: 14304668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2023]
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19
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Leman A. Untersuchungen �ber die intracellul�ren und extracellul�ren Redoxpotentiale g�render Hefesuspensionen. Arch Microbiol 1965. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00409128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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20
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Brin M, Yonemoto RH. STIMULATION OF THE GLUCOSE OXIDATIVE PATHWAY IN HUMAN ERYTHROCYTES BY METHYLENE BLUE. J Biol Chem 1958. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)70565-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Thatcher F, Maclean JT. Synergistic action between the sulfonamides, certain dyes, and streptomycin against gram-negative bacteria; preliminary report. J Urol 1947; 57:902-31. [PMID: 20295868 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)69727-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- F.S. Thatcher
- From the Department of Bacteriology, Macdonald College, McGill University and the Departments of Urology, Montreal Military Hospital and Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal
| | - John T. Maclean
- From the Department of Bacteriology, Macdonald College, McGill University and the Departments of Urology, Montreal Military Hospital and Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal
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Ballentine R. Analysis of the changes in respiratory activity accompanying the fertilization of marine eggs. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1940. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.1030150209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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26
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SNYDER THOMASL, BROH-KAHN RH. Substitution of Cysteine for Protohæmin as the 'X' Factor for Growth of H. influenzæ. Nature 1938. [DOI: 10.1038/142153a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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27
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Affiliation(s)
- R H Broh-Kahn
- Department of Metabolism and Endocrinology, Institute for Medical Research, The Jewish Hospital, Cincinnati, Ohio
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28
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Korr IM. Respiratory mechanisms in the unfertilized and fertilized sea urchin egg. A temperature analysis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1937. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.1030100405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Shapiro H. The respiration of fragments obtained by centrifuging the egg of the sea urchin, arbacia punctulata. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1935. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.1030060108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Barron ESG. THE RATE OF AUTOXIDATION OF OXIDATION-REDUCTION SYSTEMS AND ITS RELATION TO THEIR FREE ENERGY. J Biol Chem 1932. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)76241-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Wellford GT. The effects of hormones and certain other substances on cell (luminous bacteria) respiration. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1932. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.1030010302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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