Effects of mass flow rate and droplet velocity on surface heat flux during cryogen spray cooling

Spray cooling characteristics of nanofluids for electronic power devices

The performance of a single spray for electronic power devices using deionized (DI) water and pure silver (Ag) particles as well as multi-walled carbon nanotube (MCNT) particles, respectively, is studied herein. The tests are performed with a flat horizontal heated surface using a nozzle diameter of 0.5 mm with a definite nozzle-to-target surface distance of 25 mm. The effects of nanoparticle volume fraction and mass flow rate of the liquid on the surface heat flux, including critical heat flux (CHF), are explored. Both steady state and transient data are collected for the two-phase heat transfer coefficient, boiling curve/ cooling history, and the corresponding CHF. The heat transfer removal rate can reach up to 274 W/cm(2) with the corresponding CHF enhancement ratio of 2.4 for the Ag/water nanofluids present at a volume fraction of 0.0075% with a low mass flux of 11.9 × 10(-4) kg/cm(2)s.

Fluid and thermal dynamics of cryogen sprays impinging on a human tissue phantom

Cryogen spray cooling (CSC) protects the epidermis from unintended heating during cutaneous laser surgery. The present work investigated the time-dependent flow characteristics of cryogen sprays and correspondent thermal dynamics at the surface of a human tissue phantom. First, a numerical analysis was carried out to evaluate an epoxy block substrate as a human tissue phantom. Next, the velocity and diameter of cryogen droplets were measured simultaneously and correlated with surface temperature of the human tissue phantom during CSC. Finally, velocity and diameter measurements were used to compute the spray number, mass, and kinetic energy fluxes, and temperature measurements were used to compute the surface heat flux. Numerical modeling showed that the thermal response of our phantom was qualitatively similar to that of human stratum corneum and epidermis; quantitatively, thermal responses differed. A simple transformation to map the temperature response of the phantom to that of tissue was derived. Despite the relatively short spurt durations (10 ms, 30 ms, and 50 ms), cryogen delivery is mostly a steady state process with initial and final fluid transients mainly due to the valve dynamics. Thermal transients (16 ms) are longer than fluid transients (4 ms) due to the low thermal diffusivity of human tissues; steady states are comparable in duration ( approximately 10 ms, 30 ms, and 50 ms) although there is an inherent thermal delay ( approximately 12 ms). Steady state temperatures are the lowest surface temperatures experienced by the substrate, independent of spurt duration; hence, longer spurt durations result in larger exposures of the tissue surface to the same lower, steady state temperature as in shorter spurts. Temperatures in human tissue during CSC for the spray system and parameters used herein are estimated to be approximately -19 degrees C at the stratum corneum surface and >0 degrees C across the epidermis.

Comparative study of cryogen spray cooling with R-134a and R-404a: implications for laser treatment of dark human skin

Cutaneous laser treatment in dark skin patients is challenging due to significant light absorption by the melanin at the basal layer of epidermis, which can result in irreversible nonspecific thermal injury to the epidermis. Cryogen spray cooling (CSC) with R-134a (boiling point approximately -26.2 degrees C at 1 atm), which is currently used during cutaneous laser treatment, has shown poor efficacy in protecting dark human skin. We investigated the potential of CSC with R-404a (boiling point approximately -46.5 degrees C at 1 atm), which has a lower boiling point than R-134a, for improved therapeutic outcome in dark human skin at three levels: in vitro (epoxy resin skin phantom), ex vivo (normal dark human skin sample), and in vivo (skin of the rabbit external ear). The skin phantom was used to acquire the surface and internal temperature profiles in response to CSC with R-134a or R-404a at various spurt durations, based upon which CSC-induced heat removal from the skin phantom was estimated using an algorithm that solved a one-dimensional inverse heat conduction problem. CSC with R-404a increased the temperature reductions within the phantom and subsequently the amount of heat removal from the phantom in comparison to that with R-134a. Normal ex vivo Fitzpatrick types V-VI human skin samples were used to investigate the thermal response of dark human skin epidermis to CSC (R-134a or R-404a) at various spurt durations in conjunction with 595-nm pulsed dye laser irradiation at various radiant exposures. Cryogen R-404a increased the threshold radiant exposures for irreversible thermal injury to the epidermis in dark pigmentation skin. No obvious CSC-induced morphological changes to human skin was observed when sprayed with R404-a spurts using durations up to 300 ms. In vivo rabbit ear vasculature was used as a model of cutaneous anomalies to assess the influences of CSC (with R-134a or R-404a) on the photothermolysis of dermal blood vessels. CSC (R-134a or R-404a) with the spurt durations of 100 to 300 ms increased the most superficial depth of thermally damaged dermal blood vessel compared with the sites without CSC, implying possible nonspecific cooling of superficial dermal blood vessels by the cryogen spurts with the settings applied.

Thermal and flow measurements of continuous cryogenic spray cooling

The performance of single sprays for high heat flux cooling using R-134a was studied. The heat flux and heat transfer coefficient at the surface of a sprayed jet based on measurements of steady-state temperature gradients on a thin copper plate during continuous spraying. Meanwhile, the spray droplets flow characteristics was also quantified through laser doppler velocimetry (LDV) measurements to obtain the local velocity distributions. The effects of mass flow rate and average droplet velocity, and spray exit-to-target distance on the surface heat flux including the corresponding critical heat flux (CHF) were explored through three different nozzle diameters of 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4 mm. Finally, the effective use of the fluid being delivered based on the cooling efficiency and cooling effectiveness was also examined. The relationship between CHF and nozzle performance in terms of cooling efficiency and cooling effectiveness was found. The heat transfer removal rate can reach up to 140 W/cm(2) for the present nozzle size of d (j)=0.2 and 0.3 mm, which may enhance the current cryogen spray cooling (CSC) technique that assists laser therapy of dermatoses.

Effects of hypobaric pressure on human skin: Implications for cryogen spray cooling (Part II)

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Clinical results have demonstrated that dark purple port wine stain (PWS) birthmarks respond favorably to laser induced photothermolysis after the first three to five treatments. Nevertheless, complete blanching is rarely achieved and the lesions stabilize at a red-pink color. In a feasibility study (Part I), we showed that local hypobaric pressure on PWS human skin prior to laser irradiation induced significant lesion blanching. The objective of the present study (Part II) is to investigate the effects of hypobaric pressures on the efficiency of cryogen spray cooling (CSC), a technique that assists laser therapy of PWS and other dermatoses.

STUDY DESIGN/MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experiments were carried out within a suction cup and vacuum chamber to study the effect of hypobaric pressure on the: (1) interaction of cryogen sprays with human skin; (2) spray atomization; and (3) thermal response of a model skin phantom. A high-speed camera was used to acquire digital images of spray impingement on in vivo human skin and spray cones generated at different hypobaric pressures. Subsequently, liquid cryogen was sprayed onto a skin phantom at atmospheric and 17, 34, 51, and 68 kPa (5, 10, 15, and 20 in Hg) hypobaric pressures. A fast-response temperature sensor measured sub-surface phantom temperature as a function of time. Measurements were used to solve an inverse heat conduction problem to calculate surface temperatures, heat flux, and overall heat extraction at the skin phantom surface.

RESULTS

Under hypobaric pressures, cryogen spurts did not produce skin indentation and only minimal frost formation. Sprays also showed shorter jet lengths and better atomization. Lower minimum surface temperatures and higher overall heat extraction from skin phantoms were reached.

CONCLUSIONS

The combined effects of hypobaric pressure result in more efficient cryogen evaporation that enhances heat extraction and, therefore, improves the epidermal protection provided by CSC.

Epidermal and vascular damage analysis of in vivo human skin in response to 595 nm pulsed laser irradiation

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Laser irradiation is the current modality for treatment of cutaneous hypervascular malformations such as port wine stains and telangiectasia. Although cryogen spray cooling (CSC) is used to protect the epidermis from non-specific laser-induced thermal damage in moderately-pigmented skin types, individuals with high melanin content are still at risk for epidermal damage using the current laser irradiation and CSC parameters. The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of the spray Weber number (1,100 or 5,100) on epidermal protection and examine vascular coagulation in response to pulsed dye laser irradiation.

STUDY DESIGN/MATERIALS AND METHODS

Normal, in vivo human skin from eight subjects of Fitzpatrick skin types I-V were precooled with either low or high Weber number cryogen sprays and subsequently irradiated with a pulsed dye laser at 595 nm. Analysis of gross purpura, morphological vascular damage, and apoptosis of the vascular walls were performed.

RESULTS

Results demonstrated a high Weber number spray of 5,100 decreased the level of epidermal damage in darker and moderate pigmented individuals compared to a Weber number spray of 1,100. This study also established a positive correlation between gross purpura and the level of vessel wall apoptosis.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has demonstrated that CSC with a high Weber number spray can decrease nonspecific thermal damage to the epidermis in response to laser irradiation in vivo. We have also established a positive correlation between gross purpura and the level of vessel wall apoptosis. Lasers Surg. Med. (c) 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Heat-transfer dynamics during cryogen spray cooling of substrate at different initial temperatures

Cryogen spray cooling (CSC) is used to minimize the risk of epidermal damage during laser dermatologic therapy. However, the dominant mechanisms of heat transfer during the transient cooling process are incompletely understood. The objective of this study is to elucidate the physics of CSC by measuring the effect of initial substrate temperature (T0) on cooling dynamics. Cryogen was delivered by a straight-tube nozzle onto a skin phantom. A fast-response thermocouple was used to record the phantom temperature changes before, during and after the cryogen spray. Surface heat fluxes (q") and heat-transfer coefficients (h) were computed using an inverse heat conduction algorithm. The maximum surface heat flux (q"max) was observed to increase with T0. The surface temperature corresponding to q"max also increased with T0 but the latter has no significant effect on h. It is concluded that heat transfer between the cryogen spray and skin phantom remains in the nucleate boiling region even if T0 is 80 degrees C.

Effect of skin indentation on heat transfer during cryogen spray cooling

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Cryogen spray cooling (CSC) is used to pre-cool the epidermis during dermatological laser procedures such as treatment of port wine stain (PWS) birthmarks, hair removal, and non-ablative photorejuvenation. Thus far, heat transfer studies related to CSC optimization have assumed a flat surface but clinical observation suggests that human skin indents due to the force of an impinging cryogen spray.

STUDY DESIGN/MATERIALS AND METHODS

High-speed videos of cryogen spray impingement on in vivo human skin were taken and the resulting indentations characterized as a function of both nozzle-to-skin distance and anatomic location. Detectors with pre-formed indentations were constructed and heat flux measurements were performed at two nozzle-to-surface distances.

RESULTS

Indentation causes cryogen accumulation that reduces the efficiency of heat transfer when compared to spray impingement on a flat surface. Large indentations, however, encourage convective flow within the cryogen pool that mitigates many of the negative effects of liquid layer thickening and improves the heat flux.

CONCLUSIONS

Flat surfaces produce the most efficient heat transfer, but once indentation exists (as it does in all clinically relevant cases), larger indentations produce a higher maximum heat flux. This suggests that higher momentum sprays (which produce larger skin indentations for identical spurts) than those in current clinical use may improve CSC efficiency.

Experimental study of cryogen spray properties for application in dermatologic laser surgery

Cryogenic sprays are used for cooling human skin during laser dermatologic surgery. In this paper, six straight-tube nozzles are characterized by photographs of cryogenic spray shapes, as well as measurements of average droplet diameter, velocity, and temperature. A single-droplet evaporation model to predict average spray droplet diameter and temperature is tested using the experimental data presented here. The results show two distinct spray patterns--sprays for 1.4-mm-diameter nozzles (wide nozzles) show significantly larger average droplet diameters and higher temperatures as a function of distance from the nozzle compared with those for 0.5-0.8-mm-diameter nozzles (narrow nozzles). These results complement and support previously reported studies, indicating that wide nozzles induce more efficient heat extraction than the narrow nozzles.