Image segmentation of trabecular spongiosa by visual inspection of the gradient magnitude

Modeling bystander effects that cause growth delay of breast cancer xenografts in bone marrow of mice treated with radium-223

RATIONALE

The role of radiation-induced bystander effects in cancer therapy with alpha-particle emitting radiopharmaceuticals remains unclear. With renewed interest in using alpha-particle emitters to sterilize disseminated tumor cells, micrometastases, and tumors, a better understanding of the direct effects of alpha particles and the contribution of the bystander responses they induce is needed to refine dosimetric models that help predict clinical benefit. Accordingly, this work models and quantifies the relative importance of direct effects (DE) and bystander effects (BE) in the growth delay of human breast cancer xenografts observed previously in the tibiae of mice treated with ²²³RaCl₂.

METHODS

A computational model of MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 human breast cancer xenografts in the tibial bone marrow of mice administered ²²³RaCl₂ was created. A Monte Carlo radiation transport simulation was performed to assess individual cell absorbed doses. The responses of the breast cancer cells to direct alpha particle irradiation and gamma irradiation were needed as input data for the model and were determined experimentally using a colony-forming assay and compared to the responses of preosteoblast MC3T3-E1 and osteocyte-like MLO-Y4 bone cells. Using these data, a scheme was devised to simulate the dynamic proliferation of the tumors in vivo, including DE and BE propagated from the irradiated cells. The parameters of the scheme were estimated semi-empirically to fit experimental tumor growth.

RESULTS

A robust BE component, in addition to a much smaller DE component, was required to simulate the in vivo tumor proliferation. We also found that the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) for cell killing by alpha particle radiation was greater for the bone cells than the tumor cells.

CONCLUSION

This modeling study demonstrates that DE of radiation alone cannot explain experimental observations of ²²³RaCl₂-induced growth delay of human breast cancer xenografts. Furthermore, while the mechanisms underlying BE remain unclear, the addition of a BE component to the model is necessary to provide an accurate prediction of the growth delay. More complex models are needed to further comprehend the extent and complexity of ²²³RaCl₂-induced BE.

A novel approach for computing 3D mice distal femur properties using high-resolution micro-computed tomography scanning

One of the most-scanned joints in preclinical animal models dealing with musculoskeletal pathologies is the mouse knee. While three-dimensional (3D) characterization of bone tissue porosity have previously been performed on cortical bone, it has not yet been comprehensively performed for the subchondral bone (SB) and the calcified cartilage (CC), which compose the subchondral mineralized zone (SMZ). Thus, it remains challenging to assess changes that occur in the SMZ of the mouse knee during pathologies such as osteoarthritis. One of the keys to addressing this challenge is to segment each layer to measure their morphologies, material properties, and porosity. Our study presents a novel approach for computing Tissue Mineral Density, 3D porosity, and the thickness of SB and CC in a mouse distal femur using High-Resolution Micro-Computed Tomography (HR-μCT). We have segmented the Vascular Porosity network, the osteocytes' lacunae of the SB, and the chondrocytes of the CC by using multi-thresholding and the percentage of chondrocytes porosity. Our results show a low intra- and inter-observer coefficient of variability. Regarding porosity and geometrical properties of both CC and SB, our results are within the range of the literature. Our approach opens new avenues for assessing porosity and vascular changes in the distal femur of preclinical animal models dealing with musculoskeletal pathologies such as osteoarthritis.

ELECTRON ABSORBED FRACTIONS IN AN IMAGE-BASED MICROSCOPIC SKELETAL DOSIMETRY MODEL OF CHINESE ADULT MALE

Based on the Chinese reference adult male voxel model, a set of microscopic skeletal models of Chinese adult male is constructed through the processes of computed tomography (CT) imaging, bone coring, micro-CT imaging, image segmentation, merging into macroscopic bone model and implementation in Geant4. At the step of image segmentation, a new bone endosteum (BE) segmentation method is realized by sampling. The set of model contains 32 spongiosa samples with voxel size of 19 μm cubes. The microscopic spongiosa bone data for Chinese adult male are provided. Electron absorbed fractions in red bone marrow (RBM) and BE are calculated. Source tissues include the bone marrow (red and yellow), trabecular bone (surfaces and volumes) and cortical bone (surfaces and volumes). Target tissues include RBM and BE. Electron energies range from 10 keV to 10 MeV. Additionally, comparison of the result with other investigations is provided.

An image-based skeletal dosimetry model for the ICRP reference adult female-internal electron sources

An image-based skeletal dosimetry model for internal electron sources was created for the ICRP-defined reference adult female. Many previous skeletal dosimetry models, which are still employed in commonly used internal dosimetry software, do not properly account for electron escape from trabecular spongiosa, electron cross-fire from cortical bone, and the impact of marrow cellularity on active marrow self-irradiation. Furthermore, these existing models do not employ the current ICRP definition of a 50 µm bone endosteum (or shallow marrow). Each of these limitations was addressed in the present study. Electron transport was completed to determine specific absorbed fractions to both active and shallow marrow of the skeletal regions of the University of Florida reference adult female. The skeletal macrostructure and microstructure were modeled separately. The bone macrostructure was based on the whole-body hybrid computational phantom of the UF series of reference models, while the bone microstructure was derived from microCT images of skeletal region samples taken from a 45 years-old female cadaver. The active and shallow marrow are typically adopted as surrogate tissue regions for the hematopoietic stem cells and osteoprogenitor cells, respectively. Source tissues included active marrow, inactive marrow, trabecular bone volume, trabecular bone surfaces, cortical bone volume, and cortical bone surfaces. Marrow cellularity was varied from 10 to 100 percent for active marrow self-irradiation. All other sources were run at the defined ICRP Publication 70 cellularity for each bone site. A total of 33 discrete electron energies, ranging from 1 keV to 10 MeV, were either simulated or analytically modeled. The method of combining skeletal macrostructure and microstructure absorbed fractions assessed using MCNPX electron transport was found to yield results similar to those determined with the PIRT model applied to the UF adult male skeletal dosimetry model. Calculated skeletal averaged absorbed fractions for each source-target combination were found to follow similar trends of more recent dosimetry models (image-based models) but did not follow results from skeletal models based upon assumptions of an infinite expanse of trabecular spongiosa.

Effect of micro-computed tomography voxel size and segmentation method on trabecular bone microstructure measures in mice

Micro-computed tomography (μCT) is currently the gold standard for determining trabecular bone microstructure in small animal models. Numerous parameters associated with scanning and evaluation of μCT scans can strongly affect morphologic results obtained from bone samples. However, the effect of these parameters on specific trabecular bone outcomes is not well understood. This study investigated the effect of μCT scanning with nominal voxel sizes between 6–30 μm on trabecular bone outcomes quantified in mouse vertebral body trabecular bone. Additionally, two methods for determining a global segmentation threshold were compared: based on qualitative assessment of 2D images, or based on quantitative assessment of image histograms. It was found that nominal voxel size had a strong effect on several commonly reported trabecular bone parameters, in particular connectivity density, trabecular thickness, and bone tissue mineral density. Additionally, the two segmentation methods provided similar trabecular bone outcomes for scans with small nominal voxel sizes, but considerably different outcomes for scans with larger voxel sizes. The Qualitatively Selected segmentation method more consistently estimated trabecular bone volume fraction (BV/TV) and trabecular thickness across different voxel sizes, but the Histogram segmentation method more consistently estimated trabecular number, trabecular separation, and structure model index. Altogether, these results suggest that high-resolution scans be used whenever possible to provide the most accurate estimation of trabecular bone microstructure, and that the limitations of accurately determining trabecular bone outcomes should be considered when selecting scan parameters and making conclusions about inter-group variance or between-group differences in studies of trabecular bone microstructure in small animals.

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This study investigated the effect of μCT scanning with voxel sizes between 6–30 μm on mouse trabecular bone measures.

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Two commonly used segmentation methods for determining a global segmentation threshold were compared.

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Voxel size strongly affected trabecular bone parameters including connectivity density and trabecular thickness.

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The segmentation methods yielded similar outcomes for scans with small voxel sizes, but not scans with large voxel sizes.

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Suggest that high-resolution scans should be used when possible to accurately estimate trabecular bone microstructure.

An image-based skeletal dosimetry model for the ICRP reference adult male--internal electron sources

In this study, a comprehensive electron dosimetry model of the adult male skeletal tissues is presented. The model is constructed using the University of Florida adult male hybrid phantom of Lee et al (2010 Phys. Med. Biol. 55 339-63) and the EGSnrc-based Paired Image Radiation Transport code of Shah et al (2005 J. Nucl. Med. 46 344-53). Target tissues include the active bone marrow, associated with radiogenic leukemia, and total shallow marrow, associated with radiogenic bone cancer. Monoenergetic electron emissions are considered over the energy range 1 keV to 10 MeV for the following sources: bone marrow (active and inactive), trabecular bone (surfaces and volumes), and cortical bone (surfaces and volumes). Specific absorbed fractions are computed according to the MIRD schema, and are given as skeletal-averaged values in the paper with site-specific values reported in both tabular and graphical format in an electronic annex available from http://stacks.iop.org/0031-9155/56/2309/mmedia. The distribution of cortical bone and spongiosa at the macroscopic dimensions of the phantom, as well as the distribution of trabecular bone and marrow tissues at the microscopic dimensions of the phantom, is imposed through detailed analyses of whole-body ex vivo CT images (1 mm resolution) and spongiosa-specific ex vivo microCT images (30 µm resolution), respectively, taken from a 40 year male cadaver. The method utilized in this work includes: (1) explicit accounting for changes in marrow self-dose with variations in marrow cellularity, (2) explicit accounting for electron escape from spongiosa, (3) explicit consideration of spongiosa cross-fire from cortical bone, and (4) explicit consideration of the ICRP's change in the surrogate tissue region defining the location of the osteoprogenitor cells (from a 10 µm endosteal layer covering the trabecular and cortical surfaces to a 50 µm shallow marrow layer covering trabecular and medullary cavity surfaces). Skeletal-averaged values of absorbed fraction in the present model are noted to be very compatible with those weighted by the skeletal tissue distributions found in the ICRP Publication 110 adult male and female voxel phantoms, but are in many cases incompatible with values used in current and widely implemented internal dosimetry software.

An image-based skeletal dosimetry model for the ICRP reference newborn--internal electron sources

In this study, a comprehensive electron dosimetry model of newborn skeletal tissues is presented. The model is constructed using the University of Florida newborn hybrid phantom of Lee et al (2007 Phys. Med. Biol. 52 3309-33), the newborn skeletal tissue model of Pafundi et al (2009 Phys. Med. Biol. 54 4497-531) and the EGSnrc-based Paired Image Radiation Transport code of Shah et al (2005 J. Nucl. Med. 46 344-53). Target tissues include the active bone marrow (surrogate tissue for hematopoietic stem cells), shallow marrow (surrogate tissue for osteoprogenitor cells) and unossified cartilage (surrogate tissue for chondrocytes). Monoenergetic electron emissions are considered over the energy range 1 keV to 10 MeV for the following source tissues: active marrow, trabecular bone (surfaces and volumes), cortical bone (surfaces and volumes) and cartilage. Transport results are reported as specific absorbed fractions according to the MIRD schema and are given as skeletal-averaged values in the paper with bone-specific values reported in both tabular and graphic format as electronic annexes (supplementary data). The method utilized in this work uniquely includes (1) explicit accounting for the finite size and shape of newborn ossification centers (spongiosa regions), (2) explicit accounting for active and shallow marrow dose from electron emissions in cortical bone as well as sites of unossified cartilage, (3) proper accounting of the distribution of trabecular and cortical volumes and surfaces in the newborn skeleton when considering mineral bone sources and (4) explicit consideration of the marrow cellularity changes for active marrow self-irradiation as applicable to radionuclide therapy of diseased marrow in the newborn child.

Skeletal dosimetry in the MAX06 and the FAX06 phantoms for external exposure to photons based on vertebral 3D-microCT images

3D-microCT images of vertebral bodies from three different individuals have been segmented into trabecular bone, bone marrow and bone surface cells (BSC), and then introduced into the spongiosa voxels of the MAX06 and the FAX06 phantoms, in order to calculate the equivalent dose to the red bone marrow (RBM) and the BSC in the marrow cavities of trabecular bone with the EGSnrc Monte Carlo code from whole-body exposure to external photon radiation. The MAX06 and the FAX06 phantoms consist of about 150 million 1.2 mm cubic voxels each, a part of which are spongiosa voxels surrounded by cortical bone. In order to use the segmented 3D-microCT images for skeletal dosimetry, spongiosa voxels in the MAX06 and the FAX06 phantom were replaced at runtime by so-called micro matrices representing segmented trabecular bone, marrow and BSC in 17.65, 30 and 60 microm cubic voxels. The 3D-microCT image-based RBM and BSC equivalent doses for external exposure to photons presented here for the first time for complete human skeletons are in agreement with the results calculated with the three correction factor method and the fluence-to-dose response functions for the same phantoms taking into account the conceptual differences between the different methods. Additionally the microCT image-based results have been compared with corresponding data from earlier studies for other human phantoms.

An assessment of bone marrow and bone endosteum dosimetry methods for photon sources

The rather complex and microscopic histological structure of the skeletal system generally limits one's ability to accurately model this tissue during dosimetric evaluations. Consequently, various assumptions must be made to evaluate the absorbed dose from external and internal photons to the radiosensitive tissues of the red (or haematopoietically active) bone marrow and the osteogenic tissues of the skeletal endosteum. These various methods for photon skeletal dosimetry have not been inter-compared, partly due to the lack of a realistic reference model that can provide a high-resolution three-dimensional geometry for secondary electron particle transport. In the present study, the paired-image radiation transport (PIRT) model developed by Shah et al (2005 J. Nucl. Med. 45 344) was utilized to evaluate the absorbed dose per incident photon fluence to these skeletal regions from idealized parallel beams of monoenergetic photons. The PIRT model results were then used as a local reference against which absorbed doses via other methods were compared. For red bone marrow dosimetry, four approximate techniques were considered: (1) the dose response function method (DRF method) presented in ORNL/TM-8381, (2) the mass-energy absorption coefficient ratio method (two-parameter MEAC method), (3) the MEAC method with the additional use of energy-dependent dose enhancement factors from King and Spiers (1985 Br. J. Radiol. 58 345) (three-parameter MEAC method), and (4) the three-parameter MEAC method applied at the voxel level through the use image-specific CT numbers (CTN method). For the bone endosteum (i.e., bone surfaces), two approximate techniques were compared: (1) the DRF method for bone surfaces and (2) the homogeneous bone approximation (HBA) method. In each case, the local reference standard was assumed to be that of the PIRT model. Four different ex vivo bone specimens with distinctively different internal structures were used in the study: the cranium, the lumbar vertebra, the os coxae and the left middle rib, each excised from a 66 year male cadaver (body mass index, 22.7 kg m(-2)). High-resolution CT images of these skeletal sites were used to construct computational voxel models for Monte Carlo radiation transport. Study results indicated that skeletal sites with thick cortical regions and thick trabeculae such as in the cranium provide considerable beam attenuation at low photon energies, which is not properly accounted for in methods based on a homogeneous skeletal tissue structure (DRF, MEAC, HBA). For bone marrow dose assessment, the CTN method showed the best agreement with PIRT model results over a broad range of photon energies, while the HBA method showed better agreement with the PIRT model in assessing bone endosteum dose at energies above 100 keV. Bone surface doses were better approximately by the DRF method at energies below 50 keV. Considerable secondary electron escape at photon energies over 1-3 MeV were accounted for in RBM dose assessment only in the PIRT model, as the other methods presume either an infinite expanse of spongiosa (DRF) or the existence of charge-particle equilibrium (MEAC, CTN).