Soft nanostructured films for directing the assembly of functional materials

Nanostructure Formation in Glycerolipid Films during Enzymatic Hydrolysis: A GISAXS Study

Responsive nanostructured films from food-grade lipids can be valuable for food, pharmaceutical, and biotechnological science. Lyotropic liquid crystalline structures that respond to enzymes in their environment can, for instance, be innovated as drug delivery platforms or biosensors. However, the structural changes that such films undergo during enzymatic reactions with lipase are not yet understood. This work demonstrates the preparation of mesostructured lipid films from the food-grade lipids glycerol monooleate (GMO) and triolein on silicon wafers and their digestion with pancreatic lipase using time-resolved synchrotron grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS). The film structure is compared with the corresponding GMO/triolein bulk phases in excess water. Increasing the GMO/triolein ratio in the film makes it possible to modulate the structure of the films from oil coatings to inverse hexagonal and inverse bicontinuous cubic films. Pancreatic lipase triggered swelling of the internal film nanostructure and eventually structural transformation inside the film. Orientation and reorientation of the internal film structure relative to the silicon wafer surface were observed during the preparation of the films and their digestion. The findings contribute to the understanding of self-assembly in thin films and guide the development of enzyme-responsive coatings for the functional modification of various substrates.

Polymer-Lipid Hybrid Materials

Hierarchic self-assembly underpins much of the form and function seen in synthetic or biological soft materials. Lipids are paramount examples, building themselves in nature or synthetically in a variety of meso/nanostructures. Synthetic block copolymers capture many of lipid's structural and functional properties. Lipids are typically biocompatible and high molecular weight polymers are mechanically robust and chemically versatile. The development of new materials for applications like controlled drug/gene/protein delivery, biosensors, and artificial cells often requires the combination of lipids and polymers. The emergent composite material, a "polymer-lipid hybrid membrane", displays synergistic properties not seen in pure components. Specific examples include the observation that hybrid membranes undergo lateral phase separation that can correlate in registry across multiple layers into a three-dimensional phase-separated system with enhanced permeability of encapsulated drugs. It is timely to underpin these emergent properties in several categories of hybrid systems ranging from colloidal suspensions to supported hybrid films. In this review, we discuss the form and function of a vast number of polymer-lipid hybrid systems published to date. We rationalize the results to raise new fundamental understanding of hybrid self-assembling soft materials as well as to enable the design of new supramolecular systems and applications.

Bioinspired Antimicrobial Coatings from Peptide-Functionalized Liquid Crystalline Nanostructures

Surface-associated microbial infections and contaminations are a major challenge in various fields including the food and health sectors. This study demonstrates the design of antimicrobial coatings based on the self-assembly of the food-grade amphiphilic lipid glycerol monooleate with the human cathelicidin-derived antimicrobial peptide LL-37. Structural properties of the coating and their alterations with composition were studied using advanced experimental methods including synchrotron grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering and ellipsometry. The integration of the LL-37 and its potential release from the nanostructured films into the surrounding solution was characterized with confocal Raman microscopy. Additional biological evaluation studies with clinically relevant bacterial strains, namely, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Gram-negative) and Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive), were performed to investigate the antimicrobial activity of the coatings. Significant killing activity of the coating was found against both bacterial strains. The presented findings contribute to the fundamental understanding of lipid-peptide self-assembly on the surface and may open up a promising strategy for designing simple, sustainable antimicrobial coatings for medical and food applications.

Evolution of structural dimensions in mesoporous template precursor from hexagonal lyotropic liquid crystals

Producing nanopores from hexagonal lyotropic liquid crystals (LLCs) templates requires not only retaining phase morphology of the templates but also precisely controlling structural dimensions of unit cells. In this study, SAXS and ²H NMR are used to investigate dimensional evolutions of ternary systems consisting of polymerizable species, (ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) and/or 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), in a LLCs template of hexagonally packed cylinders formed from dodecyl trimethylammonium bromide (DTAB) and water. With the addition of those polymerizable species, the system rearranges into a new hexagonal system with a smaller aggregation number, smaller pores and a thicker pore wall thickness. The hexagonal system will coexist with an aqueous-rich phase containing isotropically distributed DTAB if sufficient PEGDA is applied but the single hexagonal system could be restored by partially replacing the PEGDA with HEMA. The mobility of DTAB molecules within the aggregates varies depending on monomer compositions. The changes in structural dimensions of the unit cells and phase behaviors after adding polymerizable monomers allow dimensional control of mesochannels and potentially enable the control of selectivity and robustness of polymerized nanomaterials via molecular design.

Tunable Phospholipid Nanopatterns Mediated by Cholesterol with Sub-3 nm Domain Size

The interactions between phospholipids and cholesterol have been extensively studied in the aqueous systems because of their vital functionalities in the cell membrane. In this study, instead of the self-assembly in water, we explored the microphase-separated structures of phospholipids in bulk and thin films in the absence of solvents and created a series of ordered nanostructures by incorporation of cholesterol into phospholipids. Three zwitterionic two-tailed phospholipids, that is, phosphatidylcholines (PCs), with different numbers of double bonds on the hydrocarbon tails were investigated, including egg PC, 1,2-dioleoyl- sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC), and 1,2-dipalmitoyl- sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC). We find that the nanostructures are highly dependent on the conformation of the tails on the PCs, which can be tailored by the number of double bonds on tails and the molar ratio of cholesterol to PC. By changing the molar ratio, egg PC with one double bond organizes into rich microdomains, including lamellae, spheres, and cylinders, whereas DOPC with two double bonds form spheres and cylinders and DPPC with no double bond forms lamellae only. The sizes of the microdomains are less than 3 nm, smaller than those of typical block copolymers. The biomolecule-based nanopatterns developed in this work provide a platform toward future applications of nanotechnology and biotechnology.

Structure of Lung-Mimetic Multilamellar Bodies with Lipid Compositions Relevant in Pneumonia

The hierarchical assembly of lipids, as modulated by composition and environment, plays a significant role in the function of biological membranes and a myriad of diseases. Elevated concentrations of calcium ions and cardiolipin (CL), an anionic tetra-alkyl lipid found in mitochondria and some bacterial cell membranes, have been implicated in pneumonia recently. However, their impact on the physicochemical properties of lipid assemblies in lungs and how it impairs alveoli function is still unknown. We use small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (S/WAXS) and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) to probe the structure and dynamics of lung-mimetic multilamellar bodies (MLBs) in the presence of Ca²⁺ and CL. We conjecture that CL overexpressed in the hypophase of alveoli strongly affects the structure of lung-lipid bilayers and their stacking in the MLBs. Specifically, S/WAXS data revealed that CL induces significant shrinkage of the water-layer separating the concentric bilayers in multilamellar aggregates. ssNMR measurements indicate that this interbilayer tightening is due to undulation repulsion damping as CL renders the glycerol backbone of the membranes significantly more static. In addition to MLB dehydration, CL promotes intrabilayer phase separation into saturated-rich and unsaturated-rich lipid domains that couple across multiple layers. Expectedly, addition of Ca²⁺ screens the electrostatic repulsion between negatively charged lung membranes. However, when CL is present, addition of Ca²⁺ results in an apparent interbilayer expansion likely due to local structural defects. Combining S/WAXS and ssNMR on systems with compositions pertinent to healthy and unhealthy lung membranes, we propose how alteration of the physiochemical properties of MLBs can critically impact the breathing cycle.

Nanostructured Lipid-based Films for Substrate Mediated Applications in Biotechnology

Amphiphilic in nature, lipids spontaneously self-assemble into a range of nanostructures in the presence of water. Among lipid self-assembled structures, liposomes and supported lipid bilayers have long held scientific interest for their main applications in drug delivery and plasma membrane models, respectively. In contrast, lipid-based multi-layered membranes on solid supports only recently begun drawing scientists' attention. New studies on lipid films show that the stacking of multiple bilayers on a solid support yields interestingly complex features to these systems. Namely, multiple layers exhibit cooperative structural and dynamic behavior. In addition, the materials enable compartmentalization, templating, and enhanced release of several molecules of interest. Importantly, supported lipid phases exhibit long-range periodic nano-scale order and orientation that is tunable in response to a changing environment. Herein, we summarize current and pertinent understanding of lipid-based film research focusing on how unique structural characteristics enable the emergence of new applications in biotechnology including label-free biosensors, macroscale drug delivery, and substrate-mediated gene delivery. Our very recent contributions to lipid-based films, focusing on the structural characterization at the meso, nano, and molecular-scale, using Small-Angle X-ray Scattering, Atomic Force Microscopy, Photothermal Induced Resonance, and Solid-State NMR will be also highlighted.

Three-Dimensional Microphase Separation and Synergistic Permeability in Stacked Lipid-Polymer Hybrid Membranes

We present new structures of soft-material thin films that augment the functionality of substrate-mediated delivery systems. A hybrid material composed of phospholipids and block copolymers adopts a multilayered membrane structure supported on a solid surface. The hybrid films comprise intentional intramembrane heterogeneities that register across multilayers. These stacked domains convey unprecedented enhancement and control of permeability of solutes across micrometer-thick films. Using grazing incidence X-ray scattering, phase contrast atomic force microscopy, and confocal microscopy, we observed that in each lamella, lipid and polymers partition unevenly within the membrane plane segregating into lipid- or polymer-rich domains. Interestingly, we found evidence that like-domains align in registry across multilayers, thereby making phase separation three-dimensional. Phase boundaries exist over extended length scales to compensate the height mismatch between lipid and polymer molecules. We show that microphase separation in hybrid films can be exploited to augment the capability of drug-eluting substrates. Lipid-polymer hybrid films loaded with paclitaxel show synergistic permeability of drug compared to single-component counterparts. We present a thorough structural study of stacked lipid-polymer hybrid membranes and propose that the presence of registered domains and domain boundaries impart enhanced drug release functionality. This work offers new perspectives in designing thin films for controlled delivery applications.

Super-swelled lyotropic single crystals

Lipids self-assemble into diverse supramolecular structures that exhibit thermotropic and/or lyotropic behavior. Lyotropic mesophases, where membranes conform to periodic minimal surfaces dividing two nonpenetrating aqueous subspaces, are arguably one of the most intriguing phases of lipid materials. Traditional 3D bicontinuous cubic lipid materials appear as a polycrystal of varying degrees of order. When exposed to water, the properties of the molecular building blocks of the membrane determine specific swelling limits setting the lattice dimensions at about 15 nm. This limited swelling severely impairs their application as delivery vehicles of large drugs or as matrices for guiding protein crystallization. We report the discovery of self-assembly strategies leading to the emergence of lipid bicontinuous single crystals with unprecedented swelling capacity. The conventional strategy to increase unit cell size is tweaking membrane composition to include charged building blocks, a process to achieve electrostatic-driven swelling. In this paper, we demonstrate that controlling self-assembly external conditions when coupled to membrane composition yields 3D bicontinuous cubic phases that swell up to lattice dimensions of 68 nm. Importantly, and contrary to what is perceived for soft lyotropic materials in general, the self-assembly methodology enables the development of large super-swelled monocrystals. Utilizing small-angle X-ray scattering and cryoelectron microscopy, we underpin three crucial factors dictating the stabilization of super-swelled lipid bicontinuous cubic single crystals: (i) organic solvent drying speed, (ii) membrane charge density, and (iii) polyethylene glycol-conjugated lipids amount.