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Merkens S, Tollan C, De Salvo G, Bejtka K, Fontana M, Chiodoni A, Kruse J, Iriarte-Alonso MA, Grzelczak M, Seifert A, Chuvilin A. Toward sub-second solution exchange dynamics in flow reactors for liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2522. [PMID: 38514605 PMCID: PMC10957994 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46842-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy is a burgeoning experimental technique for monitoring nanoscale dynamics in a liquid environment, increasingly employing microfluidic reactors to control the composition of the sample solution. Current challenges comprise fast mass transport dynamics inside the central nanochannel of the liquid cell, typically flow cells, and reliable fixation of the specimen in the limited imaging area. In this work, we present a liquid cell concept - the diffusion cell - that satisfies these seemingly contradictory requirements by providing additional on-chip bypasses to allow high convective transport around the nanochannel in which diffusive transport predominates. Diffusion cell prototypes are developed using numerical mass transport models and fabricated on the basis of existing two-chip setups. Important hydrodynamic parameters, i.e., the total flow resistance, the flow velocity in the imaging area, and the time constants of mixing, are improved by 2-3 orders of magnitude compared to existing setups. The solution replacement dynamics achieved within seconds already match the mixing timescales of many ex-situ scenarios, and further improvements are possible. Diffusion cells can be easily integrated into existing liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy workflows, provide correlation of results with ex-situ experiments, and can create additional research directions addressing fast nanoscale processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Merkens
- CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, 20018, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain.
- Department of Physics, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), 20018, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain.
| | - Christopher Tollan
- CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, 20018, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Giuseppe De Salvo
- CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, 20018, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- Department of Physics, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), 20018, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Katarzyna Bejtka
- Center for Sustainable Future Technologies@Polito, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Via Livorno, 60, 10144, Torino, TO, Italy
- Department of Applied Science and Technology (DISAT), Politecnico di Torino, corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129, Torino, Italy
| | - Marco Fontana
- Center for Sustainable Future Technologies@Polito, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Via Livorno, 60, 10144, Torino, TO, Italy
- Department of Applied Science and Technology (DISAT), Politecnico di Torino, corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129, Torino, Italy
| | - Angelica Chiodoni
- Center for Sustainable Future Technologies@Polito, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Via Livorno, 60, 10144, Torino, TO, Italy
| | - Joscha Kruse
- CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, 20018, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, 20018, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Maiara Aime Iriarte-Alonso
- CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, 20018, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- TECNIPESA IDENTIFICACION SL, Parque Empresarial Zuatzu, Edificio Donosti 1-3, 20018, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Marek Grzelczak
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, 20018, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- Centro de Física de Materiales CSIC-UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 5, 20018, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Andreas Seifert
- CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, 20018, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Plaza Euskadi 5, 48009, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Andrey Chuvilin
- CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, 20018, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Plaza Euskadi 5, 48009, Bilbao, Spain
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2
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Lott TS, Petruk AA, Shaw NA, Hamada N, Andrei CM, Liu Y, Liu J, Sciaini G. A High-Throughput Method for Bulgeless Liquid Cell Imaging in the Transmission Electron Microscope. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2023; 29:658-659. [PMID: 37613374 DOI: 10.1093/micmic/ozad067.323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tyler S Lott
- The Ultrafast electron Imaging Laboratory (UeIL), University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
- Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology (WIN), University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Ariel A Petruk
- The Ultrafast electron Imaging Laboratory (UeIL), University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
- Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology (WIN), University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Nicolette A Shaw
- The Ultrafast electron Imaging Laboratory (UeIL), University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
- Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology (WIN), University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Natalie Hamada
- The Canadian Centre for Electron Microscopy (CCEM), McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Carmen M Andrei
- The Canadian Centre for Electron Microscopy (CCEM), McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Yibo Liu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
- Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology (WIN), University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Juewen Liu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
- Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology (WIN), University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Germán Sciaini
- The Ultrafast electron Imaging Laboratory (UeIL), University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
- Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology (WIN), University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
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3
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Merkens S, De Salvo G, Kruse J, Modin E, Tollan C, Grzelczak M, Chuvilin A. Quantification of reagent mixing in liquid flow cells for Liquid Phase-TEM. Ultramicroscopy 2023; 245:113654. [PMID: 36470094 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2022.113654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Liquid-Phase Transmission Electron Microscopy (LP-TEM) offers the opportunity to study nanoscale dynamics of phenomena related to materials and life science in a native liquid environment and in real time. Until now, the opportunity to control/induce such dynamics by changing the chemical environment in the liquid flow cell (LFC) has rarely been exploited due to an incomplete understanding of hydrodynamic properties of LP-TEM flow systems. This manuscript introduces a method for hydrodynamic characterization of LP-TEM flow systems based on monitoring transmitted intensity while flowing a strongly electron scattering contrast agent solution. Key characteristic temporal indicators of solution replacement for various channel geometries were experimentally measured. A numerical physical model of solute transport based on realistic flow channel geometries was successfully implemented and validated against experiments. The model confirmed the impact of flow channel geometry on the importance of convective and diffusive solute transport, deduced by experiment, and could further extend understanding of hydrodynamics in LP-TEM flow systems. We emphasize that our approach can be applied to hydrodynamic characterization of any customized LP-TEM flow system. We foresee the implemented predictive model driving the future design of application-specific LP-TEM flow systems and, when combined with existing chemical reaction models, to a flourishing of the planning and interpretation of experimental observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Merkens
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain; Department of Physics, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain.
| | - Giuseppe De Salvo
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain; Department of Physics, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain
| | - Joscha Kruse
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain; Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain
| | - Evgenii Modin
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain
| | - Christopher Tollan
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain
| | - Marek Grzelczak
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain; Centro de Física de Materiales CSIC-UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 5, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain
| | - Andrey Chuvilin
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain; Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, 48013 Bilbao, Spain
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4
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Gicala P, Petruk AA, Rivas N, Netzke S, Pichugin K, Sciaini G. A plastic feedthrough suitable for high-voltage DC femtosecond electron diffractometers. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2021; 92:103303. [PMID: 34717399 DOI: 10.1063/5.0058939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Highly energetic ultrashort electron bunches have the potential to reveal the ultrafast structural dynamics in relatively thicker in-liquid samples. However, direct current voltages higher than 100 kV are exponentially difficult to attain as surface and vacuum breakdown become an important problem as the electric field increases. One of the most demanding components in the design of a high-energy electrostatic ultrafast electron source is the high voltage feedthrough (HVFT), which must keep the electron gun from discharging against ground. Electrical discharges can cause irreversible component damage, while voltage instabilities render the instrument inoperative. We report the design, manufacturing, and conditioning process for a new HVFT that utilizes ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene as the insulating material. Our HVFT is highly customizable and inexpensive and has proven to be effective in high voltage applications. After a couple of weeks of gas and voltage conditioning, we achieved a maximum voltage of 180 kV with a progressively improved vacuum level of 1.8 × 10-8 Torr.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Gicala
- The Ultrafast Electron Imaging Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Ariel A Petruk
- The Ultrafast Electron Imaging Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Nicolás Rivas
- The Ultrafast Electron Imaging Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Sam Netzke
- The Ultrafast Electron Imaging Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Kostyantyn Pichugin
- The Ultrafast Electron Imaging Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Germán Sciaini
- The Ultrafast Electron Imaging Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
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5
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Yang J, Nunes JPF, Ledbetter K, Biasin E, Centurion M, Chen Z, Cordones AA, Crissman C, Deponte DP, Glenzer SH, Lin MF, Mo M, Rankine CD, Shen X, Wolf TJA, Wang X. Structure retrieval in liquid-phase electron scattering. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2021; 23:1308-1316. [PMID: 33367391 DOI: 10.1039/d0cp06045c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Electron scattering on liquid samples has been enabled recently by the development of ultrathin liquid sheet technologies. The data treatment of liquid-phase electron scattering has been mostly reliant on methodologies developed for gas electron diffraction, in which theoretical inputs and empirical fittings are often needed to account for the atomic form factor and remove the inelastic scattering background. In this work, we present an alternative data treatment method that is able to retrieve the radial distribution of all the charged particle pairs without the need of either theoretical inputs or empirical fittings. The merits of this new method are illustrated through the retrieval of real-space molecular structure from experimental electron scattering patterns of liquid water, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and dichloromethane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Yang
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA. and Stanford PULSE Institute, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA
| | - J Pedro F Nunes
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, USA
| | - Kathryn Ledbetter
- Stanford PULSE Institute, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA and Physics Department, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 94305, USA
| | - Elisa Biasin
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA. and Stanford PULSE Institute, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA
| | - Martin Centurion
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, USA
| | - Zhijiang Chen
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA.
| | - Amy A Cordones
- Stanford PULSE Institute, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA
| | - Christopher Crissman
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA. and Physics Department, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 94305, USA
| | - Daniel P Deponte
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA.
| | | | - Ming-Fu Lin
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA.
| | - Mianzhen Mo
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA.
| | - Conor D Rankine
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Xiaozhe Shen
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA.
| | - Thomas J A Wolf
- Stanford PULSE Institute, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA
| | - Xijie Wang
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California, 94025, USA.
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6
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Gosse C, Stanescu S, Frederick J, Lefrançois S, Vecchiola A, Moskura M, Swaraj S, Belkhou R, Watts B, Haltebourg P, Blot C, Daillant J, Guenoun P, Chevallard C. A pressure-actuated flow cell for soft X-ray spectromicroscopy in liquid media. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:3213-3229. [PMID: 32735308 DOI: 10.1039/c9lc01127g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We present and fully characterize a flow cell dedicated to imaging in liquid at the nanoscale. Its use as a routine sample environment for soft X-ray spectromicroscopy is demonstrated, in particular through the spectral analysis of inorganic particles in water. The care taken in delineating the fluidic pathways and the precision associated with pressure actuation ensure the efficiency of fluid renewal under the beam, which in turn guarantees a successful utilization of this microfluidic tool for in situ kinetic studies. The assembly of the described flow cell necessitates no sophisticated microfabrication and can be easily implemented in any laboratory. Furthermore, the design principles we relied on are transposable to all microscopies involving strongly absorbed radiation (e.g. X-ray, electron), as well as to all kinds of X-ray diffraction/scattering techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlie Gosse
- Laboratoire de Photonique et de Nanostructures, LPN-CNRS, Route de Nozay, 91460 Marcoussis, France.
| | - Stefan Stanescu
- Synchrotron Soleil, L'Orme des Merisiers, Saint-Aubin - BP 48, 91192 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Joni Frederick
- Laboratoire de Photonique et de Nanostructures, LPN-CNRS, Route de Nozay, 91460 Marcoussis, France. and Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Stéphane Lefrançois
- Synchrotron Soleil, L'Orme des Merisiers, Saint-Aubin - BP 48, 91192 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Aymeric Vecchiola
- Laboratoire de Photonique et de Nanostructures, LPN-CNRS, Route de Nozay, 91460 Marcoussis, France. and Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Mélanie Moskura
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Sufal Swaraj
- Synchrotron Soleil, L'Orme des Merisiers, Saint-Aubin - BP 48, 91192 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Rachid Belkhou
- Synchrotron Soleil, L'Orme des Merisiers, Saint-Aubin - BP 48, 91192 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Benjamin Watts
- Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Haltebourg
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Christian Blot
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Jean Daillant
- Synchrotron Soleil, L'Orme des Merisiers, Saint-Aubin - BP 48, 91192 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France and Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Patrick Guenoun
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Corinne Chevallard
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
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7
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Ma Q, Cao J, Gao Y, Han S, Liang Y, Zhang T, Wang X, Sun Y. Microfluidic-mediated nano-drug delivery systems: from fundamentals to fabrication for advanced therapeutic applications. NANOSCALE 2020; 12:15512-15527. [PMID: 32441718 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr02397c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Nano-drug delivery systems (NDDS) are functional drug-loaded nanocarriers extensively applied in the healthcare and pharmaceutical areas. Recently, microfluidics has been demonstrated as one of the most promising techniques to fabricate high-performance NDDS with uniform morphology, size and size distribution, reduced batch-to-batch variations and controllable drug delivering capacity. Here, a brief review of the microfluidic-mediated NDDS is presented. The fundamentals of microfluidics are first interpreted with an emphasis on the fluid characteristics, design and materials for microfluidic devices. Then a comprehensive and in-depth depiction of the microfluidic-mediated fabrications of controllable NDDS with well-tailored internal structures and integrated functions for controlled encapsulation and drug release are categorized and reviewed, with particular descriptions about the underlying formation mechanisms. Afterwards, recently appreciated representative applications of the microfluidic-mediated NDDS for delivering multiple drugs are systematically summarized. Finally, conclusions and perspectives on further advancing the microfluidic-mediated NDDS toward more powerful and versatile platforms for therapeutic applications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingming Ma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266021, China.
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8
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Nunes JPF, Ledbetter K, Lin M, Kozina M, DePonte DP, Biasin E, Centurion M, Crissman CJ, Dunning M, Guillet S, Jobe K, Liu Y, Mo M, Shen X, Sublett R, Weathersby S, Yoneda C, Wolf TJA, Yang J, Cordones AA, Wang XJ. Liquid-phase mega-electron-volt ultrafast electron diffraction. STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS (MELVILLE, N.Y.) 2020; 7:024301. [PMID: 32161776 PMCID: PMC7062553 DOI: 10.1063/1.5144518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2020] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The conversion of light into usable chemical and mechanical energy is pivotal to several biological and chemical processes, many of which occur in solution. To understand the structure-function relationships mediating these processes, a technique with high spatial and temporal resolutions is required. Here, we report on the design and commissioning of a liquid-phase mega-electron-volt (MeV) ultrafast electron diffraction instrument for the study of structural dynamics in solution. Limitations posed by the shallow penetration depth of electrons and the resulting information loss due to multiple scattering and the technical challenge of delivering liquids to vacuum were overcome through the use of MeV electrons and a gas-accelerated thin liquid sheet jet. To demonstrate the capabilities of this instrument, the structure of water and its network were resolved up to the 3 rd hydration shell with a spatial resolution of 0.6 Å; preliminary time-resolved experiments demonstrated a temporal resolution of 200 fs.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P F Nunes
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, USA
| | | | - M Lin
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - M Kozina
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - D P DePonte
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - E Biasin
- Stanford PULSE Institute, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - M Centurion
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, USA
| | - C J Crissman
- Department of Applied Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - M Dunning
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - S Guillet
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - K Jobe
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Y Liu
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, USA
| | - M Mo
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - X Shen
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - R Sublett
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - S Weathersby
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - C Yoneda
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - T J A Wolf
- Stanford PULSE Institute, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | | | - A A Cordones
- Stanford PULSE Institute, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - X J Wang
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
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