Water absorption and its effect on the tensile properties of tapioca starch/polyvinyl alcohol bioplastics

Preparation of Cellulose Nanocrystals Biofilm from Coconut Coir as an Alternative Source of Food Packaging Material

The current perspective emphasizes on the synthesis of a biofilm from cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) of coconut coir for the development of sustainable packaging materials as an alternative source of plastic. The biofilm was prepared by a solvent-casting method and investigated by various analytical techniques. Of them, surface morphology was observed by SEM, suggesting a crystalline rod shape with particle size of 104-318 nm and diameter of 15-70 nm. However, CNC was incorporated with starch at various ratios ranging from 10:0 to 1:9; the ratio 6:4 of CNC and the binder maximized the mechanical properties of the polymer. In the presence of a plasticizer and a cross-linker, the film possessed high tensile strength (38.4 ± 1.57 MPa) and elongation (8.2 ± 0.39%) compared to commercially available polyethylene (9.84 ± 0.32 MPa and 23 ± 0.74%). The biofilm possessed a great extent of cross-link structure, divulging through the change of contact angle (92°), surface morphology (rough surface), crystallinity (45.36%), water vapor transmission rate (427 g/m2/day), and thermal stability from 232 to 258 °C. The degree of deterioration was assessed by the soil burial test (30-45 days), highlighting the environmental compatibility of the film.

A Sustainable Approach for the Development of Cellulose-Based Food Container from Coconut Coir

The increasing demand for sustainable resources has revived the research on cellulose over the last decades. Therefore, the current research focused on the synthesis of biopolymers for the development of viable tableware utensils from cellulose of coconut coir. The synthesized biopolymer was characterized by using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), tensile strength, and contact angle. The synthesized biopolymer was converted to workable conditions through incorporation of starch, as a binder, at various ratios with cellulose, ranging from 1:9 to 10:0. Moreover, the most prominent features of the synthesized biopolymer were obtained by the addition of glycerin as a plasticizer and citric acid as a cross-linker. At 6:4 ratio of cellulose and binder showed excellent mechanical properties, and with the incorporation of cross-linker, the biopolymer possessed high tensile strength (18.6 MPa) and elongation (3.5%) in comparison to commercially available polystyrene polymer (1.5 MPa) and (2.6%), respectively. Furthermore, the cross-linker citric acid bestows with network structure that was confirmed with the change of contact angle (81°), FT-IR spectra, surface morphology, crystallinity index, and water vapor transmission rate (573 g/m2/d). TGA data revealed the improved thermal properties of the biopolymer, and the decomposed temperature was elevated from >223 to 238 °C in the presence of network structure proved by cross-linker. The degree of deterioration was assessed by soil burial test, highlighting the environmental compatibility of the tableware. The purpose of the study was to synthesize sustainable tableware from waste source coir fiber for the reduction of harmful effects of synthetic counterpart.

Biodegradable Biobased Polymers: A Review of the State of the Art, Challenges, and Future Directions

Biodegradable biobased polymers derived from biomass (such as plant, animal, marine, or forestry material) show promise in replacing conventional petrochemical polymers. Research and development have been conducted for decades on potential biodegradable biobased polymers such as polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), and succinate polymers. These materials have been evaluated for practicality, cost, and production capabilities as limiting factors in commercialization; however, challenges, such as the environmental limitations on the biodegradation rates for biodegradable biobased polymer, need to be addressed. This review provides a history and overview of the current development in the synthesis process and properties of biodegradable biobased polymers, along with a techno-commercial analysis and discussion on the environmental impacts of biodegradable biobased polymers. Specifically, the techno-commercial analysis focuses on the commercial potential, financial assessment, and life-cycle assessment of these materials, as well as government initiatives to facilitate the transition towards biodegradable biobased polymers. Lastly, the environmental assessment focuses on the current challenges with biodegradation and methods of improving the recycling process and reusability of biodegradable biobased polymers.

Biowelding 3D-Printed Biodigital Brick of Seashell-Based Biocomposite by Pleurotus ostreatus Mycelium

Mycelium biocomposites are eco-friendly, cheap, easy to produce, and have competitive mechanical properties. However, their integration in the built environment as durable and long-lasting materials is not solved yet. Similarly, biocomposites from recycled food waste such as seashells have been gaining increasing interest recently, thanks to their sustainable impact and richness in calcium carbonate and chitin. The current study tests the mycelium binding effect to bioweld a seashell biocomposite 3D-printed brick. The novelty of this study is the combination of mycelium and a non-agro-based substrate, which is seashells. As well as testing the binding capacity of mycelium in welding the lattice curvilinear form of the V3 linear Brick model (V3-LBM). Thus, the V3-LBM is 3D printed in three separate profiles, each composed of five layers of 1 mm/layer thickness, using seashell biocomposite by paste extrusion and testing it for biowelding with Pleurotus ostreatus mycelium to offer a sustainable, ecofriendly, biomineralized brick. The biowelding process investigated the penetration and binding capacity of the mycelium between every two 3D-printed profiles. A cellulose-based culture medium was used to catalyse the mycelium growth. The mycelium biowelding capacity was investigated by SEM microscopy and EDX chemical analysis of three samples from the side corner (S), middle (M), and lateral (L) zones of the biowelded brick. The results revealed that the best biowelding effect was recorded at the corner and lateral zones of the brick. The SEM images exhibited the penetration and the bridging effect achieved by the dense mycelium. The EDX revealed the high concentrations of carbon, oxygen, and calcium at all the analyzed points on the SEM images from all three samples. An inverted relationship between carbon and oxygen as well as sodium and potassium concentrations were also detected, implying the active metabolic interaction between the fungal hyphae and the seashell-based biocomposite. Finally, the results of the SEM-EDX analysis were applied to design favorable tessellation and staking methods for the V3-LBM from the seashell-mycelium composite to deliver enhanced biowelding effect along the Z axis and the XY axis with <1 mm tessellation and staking tolerance.

Development of Biodegradable Rigid Foams from Pineapple Field Waste

Pineapple materials sourced from agricultural waste have been employed to process novel bio-degradable rigid composite foams. The matrix for the foam consisted of starch extracted from pineapple stem, known for its high amylose content, while the filler comprised non-fibrous cellulosic materials sourced from pineapple leaf. In contrast to traditional methods that involve preparing a batter, this study adopted a unique approach where the starch gel containing glycerol were first formed using a household microwave oven, followed by blending the filler into the gel using a two-roll mill. The resulting mixture was then foamed at 160 °C using a compression molding machine. The foams displayed densities ranging from 0.43-0.51 g/cm³ and exhibited a highly amorphous structure. Notably, the foams demonstrated an equilibrium moisture content of approximately 8-10% and the ability to absorb 150-200% of their own weight without disintegration. Flexural strengths ranged from 1.5-4.5 MPa, varying with the filler and glycerol contents. Biodegradability tests using a soil burial method revealed complete disintegration of the foam into particles measuring 1 mm or smaller within 15 days. Moreover, to showcase practical applications, an environmentally friendly single-use foam tray was fabricated. This novel method, involving gel formation followed by filler blending, sets it apart from previous works. The findings highlight the potential of pineapple waste materials for producing sustainable bio-degradable foams with desirable properties and contribute to the field of sustainable materials.

Assessment and Optimization of Thermal Stability and Water Absorption of Loading Snail Shell Nanoparticles and Sugarcane Bagasse Cellulose Fibers on Polylactic Acid Bioplastic Films

The optimization and modeling of the parameters, the concentration of polylactic acid (PLA), sugarcane bagasse cellulose fibers (SBCF), and snail shell nanoparticles (SSNP), were investigated for the development of bioplastic films. With the aid of the Box-Behnken experimental design, response surface methodology was used to assess the consequence of the parameters on the water absorption and thermal stability of fabricated bioplastic films. Varied water absorption and thermal stability with different component loading were obtained, evidencing the loading effect of snail shell nanoparticles and sugar bagasse cellulose fibers on bioplastic film's water absorption and thermal stability. The quadratic polynomial model experiment data offered a coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.8422 for water absorption and 0.8318 for thermal stability, verifying the models' fitness to develop optimal concentration. The predicted optimal parameters were polylactic acid (99.815%), sugarcane bagasse cellulose fibers (0.036%), and snail shell nanoparticles (0.634%). The bioplastic developed with optimized concentrations of each component exhibited water absorption and thermal stability of 0.45% and 259.7 °C, respectively. The FTIR curves of bioplastic films show oxygen stretching in-plane carbon and single-bonded hydroxyl bending in the carboxylic acids functional group. SEM and TEM images of the bioplastic showed dispersion of the nanoparticles in the matrix, where SSNP is more visible than SBCF, which may be due to the lesser loading of SBCF. The improved properties suggest an optimum concentration of naturally sourced resources for developing bioplastic, which may be used for food and drug packaging for delivery.

Thermomechanical characterization of bioplastic films produced using a combination of polylactic acid and bionano calcium carbonate

The present study focuses on the thermomechanical investigation of bioplastic firms produced from a combination of polylactic acid (PLA) and nano-calcium carbonated (nano-CaCO₃) synthesized from the Achatina Fulica snail shell. The bioplastic films fabricated with nano-CaCO₃ content ranging from 1 to 5 wt% were prepared using a solvent casting method. Thermal stability and degradation with temperature-dependent mechanical properties such as stiffness, storage modulus, and loss modulus of the developed bioplastic films were determined. The conformation changes in the functional group of the developed bioplastic films after incorporating nano-CaCO₃ were also investigated. It was observed that incorporating nano-CaCO₃ improved the thermal stability and temperature-dependent mechanical properties of neat PLA, regardless of the percentage weight added. An 85.67% improvement in thermal stability was observed. The temperature-dependent stiffness increased by 84%, whereas the storage modulus improved by 240%. On the other hand, loss modulus improved by 50% due to nano-CaCO₃ incorporation into PLA. The FTIR curves of bioplastic films incorporated with nano-CaCO₃ present insignificant conformation changes in the functional group of the resulting bioplastic films. This is presumable due to the compatibility of the matrix and the reinforcement. As a result, the resulting materials' thermal and temperature-dependent mechanical properties improved significantly, demonstrating that the developed bioplastic films could be used for package applications.

A Basic Characterisation Study of Bioplastics via Gelatinization of Corn Starch

Plastic waste is the third-largest waste source in the world, so it raises the world’s human health and environmental concerns. Replacing conventional petroleum plastic with bioplastic is an alternative way to minimise plastic wastes from human life and bioplastic is more environmentally friendly. Therefore, this research study aims to synthesise bioplastic from corn starch via gelatinization and study its characteristics. Different from other studies, in this study, new formulations of bioplastics with different ratios of corn starch to glycerol samples that are 1:0.5, 1:1, 2:1, and 2:2, namely Sets A, B, C, and D, respectively, were studied and compared. From the Fourier Transformation Infrared Spectroscopy analysis, the results show that all produced corn starch-based bioplastic samples had the four major plastic’s functional groups which indicated that they were categorized as polyester. Meanwhile, via thermal property analysis, all bioplastic samples could be thermally decomposed from 34 °C to 504 °C where their weight was reduced from 5 mg to 1 mg. Among the four bioplastic samples (Sets A to D) with different ratios of corn starch to glycerol, it was found that a ratio of corn starch and glycerol that was 1:0.5 (Set A) had more biodegradable characteristics and it had the lowest water holding capacity. From the results, Set A could only hold around 4.27 % of the water that could avoid interaction of water with the contents that were wrapped with. Besides, from the results, Set A could degrade better in soils, and dissolve more in ethanol, acetone, and oils when compared to other samples. Since the bioplastic can degrade naturally by the ethanol produced from bacteria in the soils under anaerobic reactions, thus Set A has the potential application to be used as a fertiliser coating to minimise the fertiliser release rate in regions under heavy rainfall.

Starch/PVA hydrogels for oil/water separation

PVA polymers have been well-known as water-absorbing materials but their brittle nature hinders their applicability. In this study, we enhanced the strength of hydrogel and its water-absorbing capabilities by glutaraldehyde-assisted crosslinking of starch with PVA and blending BMIM-BF₄ to enhance the plasticity and generate porosity within the hydrogel multiplying the swelling capacity up to 300% and understand the kinetics and mechanism of water absorption based on the structure of the hydrogel. The ability of starch/PVA hydrogel to selectively adsorb water from oil-water emulsions was determined by establishing the underwater oleophobic nature (oil contact angle ~ 153.6°), subjecting the hydrogel to oil-water emulsion to determine the water absorbed. The hydrogels' biodegradable nature was tested by an efficient in-house biotic system and mechanisms for biodegradation have been discussed. The biodegradability (~ 90%) was determined for 50% starch in PVA sample in 28 days. These properties observed in the hydrogels will find applications in irrigating arid and semi-arid areas and also in developing superabsorbent hydrogels for hygiene-related product development etc. which can be biodegraded in an economic way. Graphical abstract.

Formaldehyde Use and Alternative Biobased Binders for Particleboard Formulation: A Review

Formaldehyde-based resins are conventionally used as a binder in formulation of particleboard. Epidemiologic studies have shown that formaldehyde is carcinogenic. Efforts to reduce the health hazard effects of the fomaldehyde-based resin in the particleboard formulation have included use of scavengers for formaldehydes and use of an alternative binder. Use of scavengers for the formaldehyde increases the cost and maintenance of particleboard formulation. There is no proof that scavengers eliminate the emission of formaldehyde from particleboard. Use of biobased binders in particleboard formulation provides an alternative for eliminating use of the formaldehyde-based resin. However, the alternative is hindered by challenges, which include limitations of physical and mechanical properties. The challenge has continuously been acted upon through research. The paper presents an overview of the use of starch as an alternative binder. Improvement over time of the starch and limitations thereof requires to be addressed. Use of the modified starch has shown increased particleboard performance. Mechanical strength, such as modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity, and internal bonding in particleboards, however, remains to be a challenge.