3D printing of sacrificial thioester elastomers using digital light processing for templating 3D organoid structures in soft biomatrices

Biomimetic structural design in 3D-printed scaffolds for bone tissue engineering

The rising prevalence of bone diseases in an aging population underscores the urgent need for innovative and clinically translatable solutions in bone tissue engineering. While significant progress has been made in refining the chemical properties of biomaterials, the structural design of scaffolds-a critical determinant of repair success-remains comparatively underexplored. Structural parameters such as porosity, pore size, and interconnectivity are not only essential for achieving mechanical stability but also pivotal in regulating biological processes, including vascularization, osteogenesis, and immune modulation. This review systematically categorizes scaffold architectures documented in the literature and highlights how these design parameters can be optimized to enhance bone regeneration. Advanced fabrication technologies, particularly 3D printing, are emphasized for their transformative potential in creating precise, biomimetic scaffolds that align with the complex functional demands of native bone. Furthermore, this work synthesizes diverse findings to provide a comprehensive framework for designing next-generation scaffolds. By bridging the gap between structural innovation and clinical application, this review delivers actionable strategies and a strategic roadmap for advancing the field toward improved clinical outcomes and transformative breakthroughs in regenerative medicine.

Integrating 3D Bioprinting and Organoids to Better Recapitulate the Complexity of Cellular Microenvironments for Tissue Engineering

Organoids, with their capacity to mimic the structures and functions of human organs, have gained significant attention for simulating human pathophysiology and have been extensively investigated in the recent past. Additionally, 3D bioprinting, as an emerging bio-additive manufacturing technology, offers the potential for constructing heterogeneous cellular microenvironments, thereby promoting advancements in organoid research. In this review, the latest developments in 3D bioprinting technologies aimed at enhancing organoid engineering are introduced. The commonly used bioprinting methods and materials for organoids, with a particular emphasis on the potential advantages of combining 3D bioprinting with organoids are summarized. These advantages include achieving high cell concentrations to form large cellular aggregates, precise deposition of building blocks to create organoids with complex structures and functions, and automation and high throughput to ensure reproducibility and standardization in organoid culture. Furthermore, this review provides an overview of relevant studies from recent years and discusses the current limitations and prospects for future development.

Engineering a Hydrazone and Triazole Crosslinked Hydrogel for Extrusion-Based Printing and Cell Delivery

Covalent adaptable crosslinks, such as the alkyl-hydrazone, endow hydrogels with unique viscoelastic properties applicable to cell delivery and bioink systems. However, the alkyl-hydrazone crosslink lacks stability in biologically relevant environments. Furthermore, when formed with biopolymers such as hyaluronic acid (HA), low molecular weight polymers (<60 kDa), or low polymer content (<2 wt%) hydrogels are typically employed as entanglements reduce injectability. Here, a high molecular weight (>60 kDa) HA alkyl-hydrazone crosslinked hydrogel is modified with benzaldehyde-poly(ethylene glycol)3-azide to incorporate azide functional groups. By reacting azide-modified HA with a multi-arm poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) functionalized with bicyclononyne, stabilizing triazole bonds are formed through strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC). Increasing the fraction of triazole bonds within the hydrogel network from 0% to 12% SPAAC substantially increases stability. The slow gelation kinetics of the SPAAC reaction in the 12% SPAAC hydrogel enables transient self-healing properties and a similar extrusion force as the 0% SPAAC hydrogel. Methyl-PEG4-hydrazide is then introduced to further slowdown network evolution, which temporarily lowers the extrusion force, improves printability, and increases post-extrusion mesenchymal stem cell viability and function in the 12% SPAAC hydrogel. This work demonstrates improved stability and temporal injectability of high molecular weight HA-PEG hydrogels for extrusion-based printing and cell delivery.

Organoids in gastrointestinal diseases: from bench to clinic

The etiology of gastrointestinal (GI) diseases is intricate and multifactorial, encompassing complex interactions between genetic predisposition and gut microbiota. The cell fate change, immune function regulation, and microenvironment composition in diseased tissues are governed by microorganisms and mutated genes either independently or through synergistic interactions. A comprehensive understanding of GI disease etiology is imperative for developing precise prevention and treatment strategies. However, the existing models used for studying the microenvironment in GI diseases-whether cancer cell lines or mouse models-exhibit significant limitations, which leads to the prosperity of organoids models. This review first describes the development history of organoids models, followed by a detailed demonstration of organoids application from bench to clinic. As for bench utilization, we present a layer-by-layer elucidation of organoid simulation on host-microbial interactions, as well as the application in molecular mechanism analysis. As for clinical adhibition, we provide a generalized interpretation of organoid application in GI disease simulation from inflammatory disorders to malignancy diseases, as well as in GI disease treatment including drug screening, immunotherapy, and microbial-targeting and screening treatment. This review draws a comprehensive and systematical depiction of organoids models, providing a novel insight into the utilization of organoids models from bench to clinic.

The Role of Biophysical Factors in Organ Development: Insights from Current Organoid Models

Biophysical factors play a fundamental role in human embryonic development. Traditional in vitro models of organogenesis focused on the biochemical environment and did not consider the effects of mechanical forces on developing tissue. While most human tissue has a Young's modulus in the low kilopascal range, the standard cell culture substrate, plasma-treated polystyrene, has a Young's modulus of 3 gigapascals, making it 10,000-100,000 times stiffer than native tissues. Modern in vitro approaches attempt to recapitulate the biophysical niche of native organs and have yielded more clinically relevant models of human tissues. Since Clevers' conception of intestinal organoids in 2009, the field has expanded rapidly, generating stem-cell derived structures, which are transcriptionally similar to fetal tissues, for nearly every organ system in the human body. For this reason, we conjecture that organoids will make their first clinical impact in fetal regenerative medicine as the structures generated ex vivo will better match native fetal tissues. Moreover, autologously sourced transplanted tissues would be able to grow with the developing embryo in a dynamic, fetal environment. As organoid technologies evolve, the resultant tissues will approach the structure and function of adult human organs and may help bridge the gap between preclinical drug candidates and clinically approved therapeutics. In this review, we discuss roles of tissue stiffness, viscoelasticity, and shear forces in organ formation and disease development, suggesting that these physical parameters should be further integrated into organoid models to improve their physiological relevance and therapeutic applicability. It also points to the mechanotransductive Hippo-YAP/TAZ signaling pathway as a key player in the interplay between extracellular matrix stiffness, cellular mechanics, and biochemical pathways. We conclude by highlighting how frontiers in physics can be applied to biology, for example, how quantum entanglement may be applied to better predict spontaneous DNA mutations. In the future, contemporary physical theories may be leveraged to better understand seemingly stochastic events during organogenesis.

Small Joint Organoids 3D Bioprinting: Construction Strategy and Application

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic disease that causes pain and disability in adults, affecting ≈300 million people worldwide. It is caused by damage to cartilage, including cellular inflammation and destruction of the extracellular matrix (ECM), leading to limited self-repairing ability due to the lack of blood vessels and nerves in the cartilage tissue. Organoid technology has emerged as a promising approach for cartilage repair, but constructing joint organoids with their complex structures and special mechanisms is still challenging. To overcome these boundaries, 3D bioprinting technology allows for the precise design of physiologically relevant joint organoids, including shape, structure, mechanical properties, cellular arrangement, and biological cues to mimic natural joint tissue. In this review, the authors will introduce the biological structure of joint tissues, summarize key procedures in 3D bioprinting for cartilage repair, and propose strategies for constructing joint organoids using 3D bioprinting. The authors also discuss the challenges of using joint organoids' approaches and perspectives on their future applications, opening opportunities to model joint tissues and response to joint disease treatment.

Modeling the Progression of Placental Transport from Early- to Late-Stage Pregnancy by Tuning Trophoblast Differentiation and Vascularization

The early-stage placental barrier is characterized by a lack of fetal circulation and by a thick trophoblastic barrier, whereas the later-stage placenta consists of vascularized chorionic villi encased in a thin, differentiated trophoblast layer, ideal for nutrient transport. In this work, predictive models of early- and late-stage placental transport are created using blastocyst-derived placental stem cells (PSCs) by modulating PSC differentiation and model vascularization. PSC differentiation results in a thinner, fused trophoblast layer, as well as an increase in human chorionic gonadotropin secretion, barrier permeability, and secretion of certain inflammatory cytokines, which are consistent with in vivo findings. Further, gene expression confirms this shift toward a differentiated trophoblast subtype. Vascularization results in a molecule type- and size-dependent change in dextran and insulin permeability. These results demonstrate that trophoblast differentiation and vascularization have critical effects on placental barrier permeability and that this model can be used as a predictive measure to assess fetal toxicity of xenobiotic substances at different stages of pregnancy.

Use of 3D Printing Techniques to Fabricate Implantable Microelectrodes for Electrochemical Detection of Biomarkers in the Early Diagnosis of Cardiovascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases

This Review provides a comprehensive overview of 3D printing techniques to fabricate implantable microelectrodes for the electrochemical detection of biomarkers in the early diagnosis of cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Early diagnosis of these diseases is crucial to improving patient outcomes and reducing healthcare systems' burden. Biomarkers serve as measurable indicators of these diseases, and implantable microelectrodes offer a promising tool for their electrochemical detection. Here, we discuss various 3D printing techniques, including stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), fused deposition modeling (FDM), selective laser sintering (SLS), and two-photon polymerization (2PP), highlighting their advantages and limitations in microelectrode fabrication. We also explore the materials used in constructing implantable microelectrodes, emphasizing their biocompatibility and biodegradation properties. The principles of electrochemical detection and the types of sensors utilized are examined, with a focus on their applications in detecting biomarkers for cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Finally, we address the current challenges and future perspectives in the field of 3D-printed implantable microelectrodes, emphasizing their potential for improving early diagnosis and personalized treatment strategies.

Advances in biomimetic hydrogels for organoid culture

An organoid is a 3-dimensional (3D) cell culture system that mimics the structural and functional characteristics of organs, and it has promising applications in regenerative medicine, precision drug screening and personalised therapy. However, current culture techniques of organoids usually use mouse tumour-derived scaffolds (Matrigel) or other animal-derived decellularised extracellular matrices as culture systems with poorly defined components and undefined chemical and physical properties, which limit the growth of organoids and the reproducibility of culture conditions. In contrast, some synthetic culture materials have emerged in recent years with well-defined compositions, and flexible adjustment and optimisation of physical and chemical properties, which can effectively support organoid growth and development and prolong survival time of organoid in vitro. In this review, we will introduce the challenge of animal-derived decellularised extracellular matrices in organoid culture, and summarise the categories of biomimetic hydrogels currently used for organoid culture, and then discuss the future opportunities and perspectives in the development of advanced hydrogels in organoids. We hope that this review can promote academic communication in the field of organoid research and provide some assistance in advancing the development of organoid cultivation technology.

Stem cell-derived intestinal organoids: a novel modality for IBD

The organoids represent one of the greatest revolutions in the biomedical field in the past decade. This three-dimensional (3D) micro-organ cultured in vitro has a structure highly similar to that of the tissue and organ. Using the regeneration ability of stem cells, a 3D organ-like structure called intestinal organoids is established, which can mimic the characteristics of real intestinal organs, including morphology, function, and personalized response to specific stimuli. Here, we discuss current stem cell-based organ-like 3D intestinal models, including understanding the molecular pathophysiology, high-throughput screening drugs, drug efficacy testing, toxicological evaluation, and organ-based regeneration of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). We summarize the advances and limitations of the state-of-the-art reconstruction platforms for intestinal organoids. The challenges, advantages, and prospects of intestinal organs as an in vitro model system for precision medicine are also discussed. Key applications of stem cell-derived intestinal organoids. Intestinal organoids can be used to model infectious diseases, develop new treatments, drug screens, precision medicine, and regenerative medicine.

A vascularized crypt-patterned colon model for high-throughput drug screening and disease modelling

The colon serves as a primary target for pharmaceutical compound screening and disease modelling. To better study colon diseases and develop treatments, engineered in vitro models with colon-specific physiological features are required. Existing colon models lack integration of colonic crypt structures with underlying perfusable vasculature, where vascular-epithelial crosstalk is affected by disease progression. We present a colon epithelium barrier model with vascularized crypts that recapitulates relevant cytokine gradients in both healthy and inflammatory conditions. Using our previously published IFlowPlate384 platform, we initially imprinted crypt topography and populated the patterned scaffold with colon cells. Proliferative colon cells spontaneously localized to the crypt niche and differentiated into epithelial barriers with a tight brush border. Toxicity of the colon cancer drug, capecitabine, was tested and showed a dose-dependent response and recovery from crypt-patterned colon epithelium exclusively. Perfusable microvasculature was then incorporated around the colon crypts followed by treatment with pro-inflammatory TNFα and IFNγ cytokines to simulate inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)-like conditions. We observed in vivo-like stromal basal-to-apical cytokine gradients in tissues with vascularized crypts and gradient reversals upon inflammation. Taken together, we demonstrated crypt topography integrated with underlying perfusable microvasculature has significant value for emulating colon physiology and in advanced disease modelling.

Harnessing light in biofabrication

The integration of light-driven technologies into biofabrication has revolutionized the field of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, with numerous breakthroughs in the last few years. Light-based bioprinting approaches (lithography, multiphoton and volumetric bioprinting) have shown the potential to fabricate large scale tissue engineering constructs of high resolution, with great flexibility and control over the cellular organization. Given the unprecedented degree of freedom in fabricating convoluted structures, key challenges in regenerative medicine, such as introducing complex channels and pre-vascular networks in 3D constructs have also been addressed. Light has also been proven as a powerful tool, leading to novel photo-chemistry in designing bioinks, but also able to impart spatial-temporal control over cellular functions through photo-responsive chemistry. For instance, smart constructs able to undergo remotely controlled shape changes, stiffening, softening and degradation can be produced. The non-invasive nature of light stimulation also enables to trigger such responses post-fabrication, during the maturation phase of a construct. Such unique ability can be used to mimic the dynamic processes occurring in tissue regeneration, as well as in disease progression and degenerative processes in vivo. Bringing together these novel multidisciplinary expertise, the present Special Issue aims to discuss the most recent trends, strategies and novel light-based technologies in the field of biofabrication. These include: 1) using light-based bioprinting to develop in vitro models for drug screening, developmental biology models, disease models, and also functional tissues for implantation; 2) novel light-based biofabrication technologies; 3) development of new photo-responsive bioinks or biomaterial inks.

Immunomodulatory PEG-CRGD Hydrogels Promote Chondrogenic Differentiation of PBMSCs

Cartilage damage is a common injury. Currently, tissue engineering scaffolds with composite seed cells have emerged as a promising approach for cartilage repair. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) hydrogels are attractive tissue engineering scaffold materials as they have high water absorption capacity as well as nontoxic and nutrient transport properties. However, PEG is fundamentally bio-inert and lacks intrinsic cell adhesion capability, which is critical for the maintenance of cell function. Cell adhesion peptides are usually added to improve the cell adhesion capability of PEG-based hydrogels. The suitable cell adhesion peptide can not only improve cell adhesion capability, but also promote chondrogenesis and regulate the immune microenvironment. To improve the interactions between cells and PEG hydrogels, we designed cysteine-arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (CRGD), a cell adhesion peptide covalently cross-linked with PEG hydrogels by a Michael addition reaction, and explored the tissue-engineering hydrogels with immunomodulatory effects and promoted chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). The results indicated that CRGD improved the interaction between peripheral blood mesenchymal stem cells (PBMSCs) and PEG hydrogels. PEG hydrogels modified with 1 mM CRGD had the optimal capacity to promote chondrogenic differentiation, and CRGD could induce macrophage polarization towards the M2 phenotype to promote tissue regeneration and repair. PEG-CRGD hydrogels combined with PBMSCs have the potential to be suitable scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering.

4D Printing of Extrudable and Degradable Poly(Ethylene Glycol) Microgel Scaffolds for Multidimensional Cell Culture

Granular synthetic hydrogels are useful bioinks for their compatibility with a variety of chemistries, affording printable, stimuli-responsive scaffolds with programmable structure and function. Additive manufacturing of microscale hydrogels, or microgels, allows for the fabrication of large cellularized constructs with percolating interstitial space, providing a platform for tissue engineering at length scales that are inaccessible by bulk encapsulation where transport of media and other biological factors are limited by scaffold density. Herein, synthetic microgels with varying degrees of degradability are prepared with diameters on the order of hundreds of microns by submerged electrospray and UV photopolymerization. Porous microgel scaffolds are assembled by particle jamming and extrusion printing, and semi-orthogonal chemical cues are utilized to tune the void fraction in printed scaffolds in a logic-gated manner. Scaffolds with different void fractions are easily cellularized post printing and microgels can be directly annealed into cell-laden structures. Finally, high-throughput direct encapsulation of cells within printable microgels is demonstrated, enabling large-scale 3D culture in a macroporous biomaterial. This approach provides unprecedented spatiotemporal control over the properties of printed microporous annealed particle scaffolds for 2.5D and 3D tissue culture.

Thiol-Based Three-Dimensional Printing of Fully Degradable Poly(propylene fumarate) Star Polymers

Poly(propylene fumarate) star polymers photochemically 3D printed with degradable thiol cross-linkers yielded highly tunable biodegradable polymeric materials. Tailoring the alkene:thiol ratio (5:1, 10:1, 20:1 and 30:1) and thus the cross-link density within the PPF star systems yielded a wide variation of both the mechanical and degradation properties of the printed materials. Fundamental trends were established between the polymer network cross-link density, glass transition temperature, and tensile and thermomechanical properties of the materials. The tensile properties of the PPF star-based systems were compared to commercial state-of-the-art non-degradable polymer resins. The thiolene-cross-linked materials are fully degradable and possess properties over a wide range of mechanical properties relevant to regenerative medicine applications.

Advances of Engineered Hydrogel Organoids within the Stem Cell Field: A Systematic Review

Organoids are novel in vitro cell culture models that enable stem cells (including pluripotent stem cells and adult stem cells) to grow and undergo self-organization within a three-dimensional microenvironment during the process of differentiation into target tissues. Such miniature structures not only recapitulate the histological and genetic characteristics of organs in vivo, but also form tissues with the capacity for self-renewal and further differentiation. Recent advances in biomaterial technology, particularly hydrogels, have provided opportunities to improve organoid cultures; by closely integrating the mechanical and chemical properties of the extracellular matrix microenvironment, with novel synthetic materials and stem cell biology. This systematic review critically examines recent advances in various strategies and techniques utilized for stem-cell-derived organoid culture, with particular emphasis on the application potential of hydrogel technology in organoid culture. We hope this will give a better understanding of organoid cultures for modelling diseases and tissue engineering applications.

Advances in Digital Light Processing of Hydrogels

Hydrogels, three-dimensional (3D) networks of hydrophilic polymers formed in water, are a significant type of soft matter used in fundamental and applied sciences. Hydrogels are of particular interest for biomedical applications, owing to their soft elasticity and good biocompatibility. However, the high water content and soft nature of hydrogels often make it difficult to process them into desirable solid forms. The development of 3D printing (3DP) technologies has provided opportunities for the manufacturing of hydrogels, by adopting a freeform fabrication method. Owing to its high printing speed and resolution, vat photopolymerization 3DP has recently attracted considerable interest for hydrogel fabrication, with digital light processing (DLP) becoming a widespread representative technique. Whilst acknowledging that other types of vat photopolymerization 3DP have also been applied for this purpose, we here only focus on DLP and its derivatives. In this review, we first comprehensively outline the most recent advances in both materials and fabrication, including the adaptation of novel hydrogel systems and advances in processing (e.g., volumetric printing and multimaterial integration). Secondly, we summarize the applications of hydrogel DLP, including regenerative medicine, functional microdevices, and soft robotics. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that either of these specific review focuses has been adopted in the literature. More importantly, we discuss the major challenges associated with hydrogel DLP and provide our perspectives on future trends. To summarize, this review aims to aid and inspire other researchers investigatng DLP, photocurable hydrogels, and the research fields related to them.