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Huttman MM, Robertson HF, Smith AN, Biggs SE, Dewi F, Dixon LK, Kirkham EN, Jones CS, Ramirez J, Scroggie DL, Zucker BE, Pathak S, Blencowe NS. A systematic review of robot-assisted anti-reflux surgery to examine reporting standards. J Robot Surg 2022; 17:313-324. [PMID: 36074220 PMCID: PMC10076351 DOI: 10.1007/s11701-022-01453-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Robot-assisted anti-reflux surgery (RA-ARS) is increasingly being used to treat refractory gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. The IDEAL (Idea, Development, Exploration, Assessment, Long-term follow up) Collaboration's framework aims to improve the evaluation of surgical innovation, but the extent to which the evolution of RA-ARS has followed this model is unclear. This study aims to evaluate the standard to which RA-ARS has been reported during its evolution, in relation to the IDEAL framework. A systematic review from inception to June 2020 was undertaken to identify all primary English language studies pertaining to RA-ARS. Studies of paraoesophageal or giant hernias were excluded. Data extraction was informed by IDEAL guidelines and summarised by narrative synthesis. Twenty-three studies were included: two case reports, five case series, ten cohort studies and six randomised controlled trials. The majority were single-centre studies comparing RA-ARS and laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication. Eleven (48%) studies reported patient selection criteria, with high variability between studies. Few studies reported conflicts of interest (30%), funding arrangements (26%), or surgeons' prior robotic experience (13%). Outcome reporting was heterogeneous; 157 distinct outcomes were identified. No single outcome was reported in all studies.The under-reporting of important aspects of study design and high degree of outcome heterogeneity impedes the ability to draw meaningful conclusions from the body of evidence. There is a need for further well-designed prospective studies and randomised trials, alongside agreement about outcome selection, measurement and reporting for future RA-ARS studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc M Huttman
- Centre for Surgical Research, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Canynge Hall, 39 Whatley Road, Bristol, BS8 2PS, UK.,University College Hospital, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Harry F Robertson
- St. Mary's Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK
| | | | - Sarah E Biggs
- University Hospitals Bristol and Weston NHS Foundation Trust, Bristol, UK
| | - Ffion Dewi
- University Hospitals Bristol and Weston NHS Foundation Trust, Bristol, UK
| | - Lauren K Dixon
- Centre for Surgical Research, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Canynge Hall, 39 Whatley Road, Bristol, BS8 2PS, UK.,University Hospitals Bristol and Weston NHS Foundation Trust, Bristol, UK
| | - Emily N Kirkham
- Centre for Surgical Research, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Canynge Hall, 39 Whatley Road, Bristol, BS8 2PS, UK.,Musgrove Park Hospital, Somerset NHS Foundation Trust, Taunton, UK
| | - Conor S Jones
- Centre for Surgical Research, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Canynge Hall, 39 Whatley Road, Bristol, BS8 2PS, UK.,Torbay Hospital, Torbay and South Devon NHS Foundation Trust, Torquay, UK
| | - Jozel Ramirez
- Centre for Surgical Research, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Canynge Hall, 39 Whatley Road, Bristol, BS8 2PS, UK.,University Hospitals Bristol and Weston NHS Foundation Trust, Bristol, UK
| | - Darren L Scroggie
- Centre for Surgical Research, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Canynge Hall, 39 Whatley Road, Bristol, BS8 2PS, UK
| | - Benjamin E Zucker
- Centre for Surgical Research, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Canynge Hall, 39 Whatley Road, Bristol, BS8 2PS, UK.,University Hospitals Bristol and Weston NHS Foundation Trust, Bristol, UK
| | - Samir Pathak
- Centre for Surgical Research, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Canynge Hall, 39 Whatley Road, Bristol, BS8 2PS, UK.,St James's University Hospital, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, UK
| | - Natalie S Blencowe
- Centre for Surgical Research, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Canynge Hall, 39 Whatley Road, Bristol, BS8 2PS, UK.
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Velanovich V. Practice-Changing Milestones in Anti-reflux and Hiatal Hernia Surgery: a Single Surgeon Perspective over 27 years and 1200 Operations. J Gastrointest Surg 2021; 25:2757-2769. [PMID: 33532979 DOI: 10.1007/s11605-021-04940-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There have been steady innovations in hiatal hernia and anti-reflux surgery. The purpose of this article is to provide a historical perspective on practice-changing innovations in the context a single surgeon experience's over a career. METHODS Patients undergoing anti-reflux surgery or hiatal hernia repair by a single surgeon from 12/1992 to 3/2020 were reviewed. DATA COLLECTED sex, age, hiatal hernia type, operation type, adjuncts used, and additional procedure performed during index operation. Superimposed on this experience are the practice-changing innovations that occurred over this timeframe. RESULTS During the time period, 1200 operations were performed. Distributions: Hernia type: I, 707 (58.9%); II-IV, 325 (27.1%); Recurrent/Failed, 168 (14.0%). Type of operation, including laparoscopic and open: Nissen fundoplication: 889 (74.1%); Toupet fundoplication: 162 (13.5%); Collis-Nissen/Toupet fundoplication: 44 (3.7%); hiatal hernia repair without fundoplication (laparoscopic and open): 38 (3.2%); endoluminal fundoplication: 35 (2.9%); hiatal hernia repair with Heller myotomy/ Dor fundoplication: 10 (0.8%); transthoracic Belsey Mark IV: 2 (0.2%); hiatal hernia repair with magnetic sphincter augmentation: 20 (1.7%). Mesh reinforcement: 185 (15.4%). Additional procedures, 210 (17.5%). During this time, these practice-changing innovations occurred: laparoscopic surgery, 48-h pH monitoring, high-resolution manometry, tailoring of fundoplication, energy sources for tissue division and hemostasis, pyloroplasty for symptomatic gastroparesis, the rise and fall of endoluminal therapies, mesh reinforcement, abandonment of short gastric vessel division, and magnetic sphincter augmentation. CONCLUSIONS Over the last 27 years, a number of practice-changing advances have been made. These have led to changes in technique and operation selection of anti-reflux and hiatal hernia surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vic Velanovich
- Division of General Surgery, The University of South Florida Morsani College of Medicine, 5 Tampa General Circle, Suite 740, Tampa, FL, 33606, USA.
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Tolboom R, Broeders I, Draaisma W. Robot-assisted laparoscopic hiatal hernia and antireflux surgery. J Surg Oncol 2015; 112:266-70. [DOI: 10.1002/jso.23912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 03/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R.C. Tolboom
- Meander Medical Centre; Department of Surgery; Amersfoort The Netherlands
- University of Twente; Robotics and Minimal Invasive Surgery; Enschede The Netherlands
| | - I.A.M.J. Broeders
- Meander Medical Centre; Department of Surgery; Amersfoort The Netherlands
- University of Twente; Robotics and Minimal Invasive Surgery; Enschede The Netherlands
| | - W.A. Draaisma
- Meander Medical Centre; Department of Surgery; Amersfoort The Netherlands
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Falkenback D, Lehane CW, Lord RVN. Robot-assisted oesophageal and gastric surgery for benign disease: antireflux operations and Heller's myotomy. ANZ J Surg 2014; 85:113-20. [PMID: 25039924 DOI: 10.1111/ans.12731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Robot-assisted general surgery operations are being performed more frequently. This review investigates whether robotic assistance results in significant advantages or disadvantages for the operative treatment of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease and achalasia. METHODS The electronic databases (Medline, Embase, PubMed) were searched for original English language publications for antireflux surgery and Heller's myotomy between January 1990 and December 2013. RESULTS Thirty-three publications included antireflux operations and 20 included Heller's myotomy. The publications indicate that the safety and effectiveness of robotic surgery is similar to that of conventional minimally invasive surgery for both operations. The six randomized trials of robot-assisted versus laparoscopic antireflux surgery showed no significant advantages but significantly higher costs for the robotic method. Gastric perforation during non-redo robotic fundoplication occurred in four trials. CONCLUSIONS No consistent advantage for robot-assisted antireflux surgery has been demonstrated, and there is an increased cost with current robotic technology. A reported advantage for robotic in reducing the perforation rate during Heller's myotomy for achalasia remains unproven. Gastric perforation during robotic fundoplication may be due to the lack of haptic feedback combined with the superhuman strength of the robot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Falkenback
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's Hospital, University of Notre Dame Medical School, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; Department of Surgery, Lund University and Lund University Hospital (Skane University Hospital), Lund, Sweden
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Abstract
The term “robot” was coined by the Czech playright Karel Capek in 1921 in his play Rossom's Universal Robots. The word “robot” is from the check word robota which means forced labor. The era of robots in surgery commenced in 1994 when the first AESOP (voice controlled camera holder) prototype robot was used clinically in 1993 and then marketed as the first surgical robot ever in 1994 by the US FDA. Since then many robot prototypes like the Endoassist (Armstrong Healthcare Ltd., High Wycombe, Buck, UK), FIPS endoarm (Karlsruhe Research Center, Karlsruhe, Germany) have been developed to add to the functions of the robot and try and increase its utility. Integrated Surgical Systems (now Intuitive Surgery, Inc.) redesigned the SRI Green Telepresence Surgery system and created the daVinci Surgical System® classified as a master-slave surgical system. It uses true 3-D visualization and EndoWrist®. It was approved by FDA in July 2000 for general laparoscopic surgery, in November 2002 for mitral valve repair surgery. The da Vinci robot is currently being used in various fields such as urology, general surgery, gynecology, cardio-thoracic, pediatric and ENT surgery. It provides several advantages to conventional laparoscopy such as 3D vision, motion scaling, intuitive movements, visual immersion and tremor filtration. The advent of robotics has increased the use of minimally invasive surgery among laparoscopically naïve surgeons and expanded the repertoire of experienced surgeons to include more advanced and complex reconstructions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaydeep H Palep
- Department of General Surgery, Grant Medical College and St. George's Hospital, Mumbai, India
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES Minimally invasive surgery is beneficial for complex operations; robotics may improve performance in these procedures; however, robotic pancreaticoduodenectomy (PD) has been plagued by long operative times. We describe a small series (n = 5) of patients who underwent a hybrid PD for treatment of obstructive jaundice and pancreatic mass. METHODS After diagnostic laparoscopy, the gallbladder was retracted cephalad and the porta hepatis was dissected. The lesser sac was opened to expose the superior mesenteric vein below the pancreas. Once the vein was cleared, the bile duct, stomach, pancreas, and jejunum were transected. After the uncinate process was cleared, the specimen was removed. The da Vinci S Surgical Robotic System was docked to perform a mucosa-to-mucosa pancreaticojejunostomy and an end-to-side choledochojejunostomy. A stapled gastrojejunostomy and drain placement completed the operation. RESULTS Five patients underwent hybrid PD between May 2006 and June 2007. All patients had a history of pancreatitis and presented with obstructive jaundice and a pancreatic mass. The operations were completed with 5 ports. The mean operative time was 7 hours. The mean hospital stay was 9.6 days. At 6 months after the operation, all patients were disease-free. CONCLUSIONS Complex procedures such as PD can be accomplished with minimally invasive surgical techniques using robotic instrumentation.
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Ortiz Oshiro E, Fernández-Represa JÁ. Estado actual de la cirugía robótica digestiva a la luz de la medicina basada en la evidencia. Cir Esp 2009; 85:132-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ciresp.2008.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2008] [Accepted: 09/09/2008] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Soravia C, Schwieger I, Witzig JA, Wassmer FA, Vedrenne T, Sutter P, Dufour JP, Racloz Y. Laparoscopic robotic-assisted gastrointestinal surgery: the Geneva experience. J Robot Surg 2008; 1:291-5. [PMID: 25484980 PMCID: PMC4247419 DOI: 10.1007/s11701-007-0058-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2007] [Accepted: 12/05/2007] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The continuing development of robotic surgery supports its use in laparoscopic gastrointestinal surgery. Our study retrospectively reviewed the surgical outcome and patient's satisfaction of gastrointestinal laparoscopic robotic procedures. From January 2003 to September 2007, 94 patients (27 women, 67 men) with a mean age of 53 years (range 19-84 years) underwent laparoscopic surgery with a da Vinci robotic system. There were 40 colorectal cases (43%), 31 anti-reflux surgery cases (33%) and 14 obesity surgery cases (15%); the remaining cases consisted of gastric and gallbladder surgery, intra-abdominal tumour excisions, and hepatic cyst resections. The majority of the cases (88, 94%) were performed for benign disease. The mean operative time was 153 min (range 60-330 min). One patient needed a blood transfusion. The mean body mass index was 25 (range 16-47). No death occurred. Five cases (5.3%) were converted to conventional laparoscopic surgery (n = 3) or to laparotomy (n = 2). Morbidity consisted of one Nissen redo surgery to loosen a tight anti-reflux valve 6 days after robotic surgery, a robotic left ureter repair and pelvic haemorrhage following proctectomy requiring re-operation to control haemostasis and to remove pelvic haematoma. Mean follow-up time was 11 months (range 15 days to 34 months). One case of incisional trocar hernia needed re-operation. Overall patient's satisfaction was high: few scars were cheloïd, while functional surgical outcome was rated high by most of the patients. Our preliminary experience was encouraging, with minimal morbidity and very high acceptance by patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Soravia
- />Laparoscopic Robotic Surgery, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- />Clinique Générale-Beaulieu, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ian Schwieger
- />Department of Anesthesiology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- />Clinique Générale-Beaulieu, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Frank-Alain Wassmer
- />Laparoscopic Robotic Surgery, Clinique Générale-Beaulieu, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Thierry Vedrenne
- />Department of Medical Computing, Clinique Générale-Beaulieu, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Pierre Sutter
- />Department of Anesthesiology, Clinique Générale-Beaulieu, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Yves Racloz
- />Laparoscopic Robotic Surgery, Clinique Générale-Beaulieu, Geneva, Switzerland
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Louw DF, Fielding T, McBeth PB, Gregoris D, Newhook P, Sutherland GR. Surgical Robotics: A Review and Neurosurgical Prototype Development. Neurosurgery 2004; 54:525-36; discussion 536-7. [PMID: 15028126 DOI: 10.1227/01.neu.0000108638.05274.e9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2003] [Accepted: 10/28/2003] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this article is to update the neurosurgical community on the expanding field of surgical robotics and to present the design of a novel neurosurgical prototype. It is intended to mimic standard technique and deploy conventional microsurgical tools. The intention is to ease its integration into the "nervous system" of both the traditional operating room and surgeon. CONCEPT To permit benefit from updated intraoperative imaging, magnetic resonance imaging-compatible materials were incorporated into the design. Advanced haptics, optics, and auditory communication with the surgical site recreate the sight, sound, and feel of neurosurgery. RATIONALE Magnification and advanced imaging have pushed surgeons to the limit of their dexterity and stamina. Robots, in contrast, are indefatigable and have superior spatial resolution and geometric accuracy. The use of tremor filters and motion scalers permits procedures requiring superior dexterity. DISCUSSION Breadboard testing of the prototype components has shown spatial resolution of 30 microm, greatly exceeding our expectations. Neurosurgeons will not only be able to perform current procedures with a higher margin of safety but also must speculate on techniques that have hitherto not even been contemplated. This includes coupling the robot to intelligent tools that interrogate tissue before its manipulation and the potential of molecular imaging to transform neurosurgical research into surgical exploration of the cell, not the organ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deon F Louw
- Division of Neurosurgery, Seaman Family MR Research Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Abstract
Industrial robotics have proven the benefit of using an untiring machine to perform precise repetitive tasks in uncomfortable or dangerous for humans environments. Highly skilled surgeons are trained to operate and adapt to difficult conditions. They are even capable of developing intelligent mechanisms to exploit a variety of tactile, visual, and other cues. The robotic systems, however, can enhance the surgeon's capability to perform a wide variety of tasks. They cannot replace the surgeon's problem-solving ability. Instead, they will redefine his role. They will significantly enhance the surgeon's skills and dexterity by providing their complementary capabilities and an ergonomically efficient and more user-friendly working environment.
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Luebbe BN, Woo R, Wolf SA, Irish MS. Robotically Assisted Minimally Invasive Surgery in a Pediatric Population: Initial Experience, Technical Considerations, and Description of the da Vinci® Surgical System. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1089/109264103322614268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Abstract
Current medical robots have nothing in common with the anthropomorphic robots in science fiction classics. They are in fact, manipulators, working on a master-slave principle. Robots can be defined as "automatically controlled multitask manipulators, which are freely programmable in three or more spaces." The success of robots in surgery is based on their precision, lack of fatigue, and speed of action. This review describes the theory, advantages, disadvantages, and clinical utilization of mechanical and robotic arm systems to replace the second assistant and provide camera direction and stability during laparoscopic surgery. The Robotrac system (Aesculap, Burlingame, CA), the First Assistant (Leonard Medical Inc, Huntingdon Valley, PA), AESOP (Computer Motion, Goleta, CA), ZEUS (Computer Motion), and the da Vinci (Intuitive Surgical, Mountain View, CA) system are reviewed, as are simple mechanical-assist systems such as Omnitract (Minnesota Scientific, St. Paul, MN), Iron Intern (Automated Medical Products Corp., New York, NY), the Bookwalter retraction system (Codman , Somerville, NJ), the Surgassistant trade mark (Solos Endoscopy, Irvine, CA), the Trocar Sleeve Stabilizer (Richard Wolf Medical Instruments Corp., Rosemont, IL), and the Endoholder (Codman, Somerville, NJ).
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael E Moran
- Capital District Urologic Surgeons, Albany, New York 12208, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renato Costi
- Clinique de Chirurgie Digestive, CHU Saint-Pierre, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
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Abstract
Future promise, but expensive
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Affiliation(s)
- T A Rockall
- Department of Surgical and Oncology Technology, Division of Surgery Anaesthetics and Intensive Care Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, St Mary's Hospital, London W2 INY UK.
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Abstract
The diagnosis and management of mediastinal masses frequently necessitates biopsy and surgical resection. The use of videothorascopic techniques has broadened the surgeon's ability to evaluate and treat such tumors using a minimally invasive approach. We describe herein the use of the da Vinci Robotic Surgical System for evaluating a mediastinal mass in a young woman.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J DeRose
- Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, Department of Surgery, Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center, New York, New York, USA.
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Chitwood WR, Nifong LW, Chapman WH, Felger JE, Bailey BM, Ballint T, Mendleson KG, Kim VB, Young JA, Albrecht RA. Robotic surgical training in an academic institution. Ann Surg 2001; 234:475-84; discussion 484-6. [PMID: 11573041 PMCID: PMC1422071 DOI: 10.1097/00000658-200110000-00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To detail robotic procedure development and clinical applications for mitral valve, biliary, and gastric reflux operations, and to implement a multispecialty robotic surgery training curriculum for both surgeons and surgical teams. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA Remote, accurate telemanipulation of intracavitary instruments by general and cardiac surgeons is now possible. Complex technologic advancements in surgical robotics require well-designed training programs. Moreover, efficient robotic surgical procedures must be developed methodically and safely implemented clinically. METHODS Advanced training on robotic systems provides surgeon confidence when operating in tiny intracavitary spaces. Three-dimensional vision and articulated instrument control are essential. The authors' two da Vinci robotic systems have been dedicated to procedure development, clinical surgery, and training of surgical specialists. Their center has been the first United States site to train surgeons formally in clinical robotics. RESULTS Established surgeons and residents have been trained using a defined robotic surgical educational curriculum. Also, 30 multispecialty teams have been trained in robotic mechanics and electronics. Initially, robotic procedures were developed experimentally and are described. In the past year the authors have performed 52 robotic-assisted clinical operations: 18 mitral valve repairs, 20 cholecystectomies, and 14 Nissen fundoplications. These respective operations required 108, 28, and 73 minutes of robotic telemanipulation to complete. Procedure times for the last half of the abdominal operations decreased significantly, as did the knot-tying time in mitral operations. There have been no deaths and few complications. One mitral patient had postoperative bleeding. CONCLUSION Robotic surgery can be performed safely with excellent results. The authors have developed an effective curriculum for training teams in robotic surgery. After training, surgeons have applied these methods effectively and safely.
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Affiliation(s)
- W R Chitwood
- Department of Surgery, Center for Minimally Invasive and Robotic Surgery, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA.
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