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Melillo RJ, Leisman G, Machado C, Carmeli E. Identification and reduction of retained primitive reflexes by sensory stimulation in autism spectrum disorder: effects on qEEG networks and cognitive functions. BMJ Case Rep 2023; 16:e255285. [PMID: 38154865 PMCID: PMC10759118 DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2023-255285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Several authors have reported finding retained primitive reflexes (RPRs) in individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). This case report describes the reduction of RPRs and changes in cognitive function after transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) of muscle. Three individuals were examined in a study at the Institute for Neurology and Neurosurgery in Havana, Cuba. Two child neurologists, not involved in the study, conducted clinical examinations on each participant and diagnosed each with ASD based on DSM-V criteria and the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (an autism evaluation tool). Each child with ASD possessed a triad of impairments in three domains: social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviour. Individuals were evaluated by quantitative electroencephalographic measures and tested by standardised cognitive function tests before and after 12 weeks of intervention. These interventions were associated with reduced ASD symptoms in the three domains, significant changes in qEEG network connectivity and significantly improved performance on standardised cognitive tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert John Melillo
- Movement and Cognition Laboratory, Department of Physical Therapy, University of Haifa Faculty of Social Welfare and Health Sciences, Haifa, Israel
| | - Gerry Leisman
- Movement and Cognition Laboratory, Department of Physical Therapy, University of Haifa Faculty of Social Welfare and Health Sciences, Haifa, Israel
- Institute for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Universidad de Ciencias Medicas de La Habana, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Calixto Machado
- Clinical Neurophysiology, Instituto de Neurologia y Neurocirugia, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Eli Carmeli
- Physical Therapy, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
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2
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Gurevitz M, Leisman G. Factors in Infancy That May Predict Autism Spectrum Disorder. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1374. [PMID: 37891743 PMCID: PMC10605556 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13101374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2023] [Revised: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The global increase in the prevalence of ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder) is of great medical importance, but the reasons for this increase are still unknown. This study sought to identify possible early contributing factors in children who were later diagnosed with ASD. In this retrospective cohort study, postnatal records of 1105 children diagnosed with ASD were analyzed to determine if any signs of ASD could be found in a large database of births and well-baby care programs. We compared the recordings of typically developing children and analyzed the differences statistically. Rapid increases in weight, height, and head circumference during early infancy predict the development of ASD. In addition, low birth weight, older maternal age, and increased weight and height percentiles at six months of age together predict the development of ASD. At two years of age, these four parameters, in addition to impaired motor development, can also predict the development of ASD. These results suggest that the recent increase in ASD prevalence is associated with the "obesity epidemic" and with recommendations of supine sleeping to prevent Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, associated with atypical neural network development in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mina Gurevitz
- Well Baby Clinic Physician, Maccabi Health Services, Herzliya 4649713, Israel;
| | - Gerry Leisman
- Movement and Fetal Cognition Laboratory, Department of Physical Therapy, University of Haifa, Haifa 3498838, Israel
- Department of Neurology, University of the Medical Sciences of Havana, Havana 11600, Cuba
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3
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Desaunay P, Guillery B, Moussaoui E, Eustache F, Bowler DM, Guénolé F. Brain correlates of declarative memory atypicalities in autism: a systematic review of functional neuroimaging findings. Mol Autism 2023; 14:2. [PMID: 36627713 PMCID: PMC9832704 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-022-00525-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The long-described atypicalities of memory functioning experienced by people with autism have major implications for daily living, academic learning, as well as cognitive remediation. Though behavioral studies have identified a robust profile of memory strengths and weaknesses in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), few works have attempted to establish a synthesis concerning their neural bases. In this systematic review of functional neuroimaging studies, we highlight functional brain asymmetries in three anatomical planes during memory processing between individuals with ASD and typical development. These asymmetries consist of greater activity of the left hemisphere than the right in ASD participants, of posterior brain regions-including hippocampus-rather than anterior ones, and presumably of the ventral (occipito-temporal) streams rather than the dorsal (occipito-parietal) ones. These functional alterations may be linked to atypical memory processes in ASD, including the pre-eminence of verbal over spatial information, impaired active maintenance in working memory, and preserved relational memory despite poor context processing in episodic memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Desaunay
- grid.411149.80000 0004 0472 0160Service de Psychiatrie de l’Enfant et de l’Adolescent, CHU de Caen Normandie, 27 rue des compagnons, 14000 Caen, France ,grid.412043.00000 0001 2186 4076EPHE, INSERM, U1077, Pôle des Formations et de Recherche en Santé, CHU de Caen Normandie, GIP Cyceron, Neuropsychologie et Imagerie de la Mémoire Humaine, Normandie Univ, UNICAEN, PSL Research University, 2 rue des Rochambelles, 14032 Caen Cedex CS, France
| | - Bérengère Guillery
- grid.412043.00000 0001 2186 4076EPHE, INSERM, U1077, Pôle des Formations et de Recherche en Santé, CHU de Caen Normandie, GIP Cyceron, Neuropsychologie et Imagerie de la Mémoire Humaine, Normandie Univ, UNICAEN, PSL Research University, 2 rue des Rochambelles, 14032 Caen Cedex CS, France
| | - Edgar Moussaoui
- grid.411149.80000 0004 0472 0160Service de Psychiatrie de l’Enfant et de l’Adolescent, CHU de Caen Normandie, 27 rue des compagnons, 14000 Caen, France
| | - Francis Eustache
- grid.412043.00000 0001 2186 4076EPHE, INSERM, U1077, Pôle des Formations et de Recherche en Santé, CHU de Caen Normandie, GIP Cyceron, Neuropsychologie et Imagerie de la Mémoire Humaine, Normandie Univ, UNICAEN, PSL Research University, 2 rue des Rochambelles, 14032 Caen Cedex CS, France
| | - Dermot M. Bowler
- grid.28577.3f0000 0004 1936 8497Autism Research Group, City University of London, DG04 Rhind Building, Northampton Square, EC1V 0HB London, UK
| | - Fabian Guénolé
- grid.411149.80000 0004 0472 0160Service de Psychiatrie de l’Enfant et de l’Adolescent, CHU de Caen Normandie, 27 rue des compagnons, 14000 Caen, France ,grid.412043.00000 0001 2186 4076EPHE, INSERM, U1077, Pôle des Formations et de Recherche en Santé, CHU de Caen Normandie, GIP Cyceron, Neuropsychologie et Imagerie de la Mémoire Humaine, Normandie Univ, UNICAEN, PSL Research University, 2 rue des Rochambelles, 14032 Caen Cedex CS, France ,grid.412043.00000 0001 2186 4076Faculté de Médecine, Pôle des Formation et de Recherche en Santé, Université de Caen Normandie, 2 rue des Rochambelles, 14032 Caen cedex CS, France
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Melillo R, Leisman G, Machado C, Machado-Ferrer Y, Chinchilla-Acosta M, Kamgang S, Melillo T, Carmeli E. Retained Primitive Reflexes and Potential for Intervention in Autistic Spectrum Disorders. Front Neurol 2022; 13:922322. [PMID: 35873782 PMCID: PMC9301367 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.922322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We provide evidence to support the contention that many aspects of Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are related to interregional brain functional disconnectivity associated with maturational delays in the development of brain networks. We think a delay in brain maturation in some networks may result in an increase in cortical maturation and development in other networks, leading to a developmental asynchrony and an unevenness of functional skills and symptoms. The paper supports the close relationship between retained primitive reflexes and cognitive and motor function in general and in ASD in particular provided to indicate that the inhibition of RPRs can effect positive change in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Melillo
- Movement and Cognition Laboratory, Department of Physical Therapy, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Gerry Leisman
- Movement and Cognition Laboratory, Department of Physical Therapy, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
- Department of Neurology, University of the Medical Sciences of Havana, Havana, Cuba
| | - Calixto Machado
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Institute for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Havana, Cuba
| | - Yanin Machado-Ferrer
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Institute for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Havana, Cuba
| | | | - Shanine Kamgang
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Ty Melillo
- Northeast College of the Health Sciences, Seneca Falls, New York, NY, United States
| | - Eli Carmeli
- Movement and Cognition Laboratory, Department of Physical Therapy, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
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5
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Lefebvre A, Delorme R, Delanoë C, Amsellem F, Beggiato A, Germanaud D, Bourgeron T, Toro R, Dumas G. Alpha Waves as a Neuromarker of Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Challenge of Reproducibility and Heterogeneity. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:662. [PMID: 30327586 PMCID: PMC6174243 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: There is no consensus in the literature concerning the presence of abnormal alpha wave profiles in patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This may be due to phenotypic heterogeneity among patients as well as the limited sample sizes utilized. Here we present our results of alpha wave profile analysis based on a sample larger than most of those in the field, performed using a robust processing pipeline. Methods: We compared the alpha waves profiles at rest in children with ASD to those of age-, sex-, and IQ-matched control individuals. We used linear regression and non-parametric normative models using age as covariate forparsing the clinical heterogeneity. We explored the correlation between EEG profiles and the patient's brain volumes, obtained from structural MRI. We automatized the detection of the alpha peak and visually quality controled our MRI measurements. We assessed the robustness of our results by running the EEG preprocessing with two different versions of Matlab as well as Python. Results: A simple linear regression between peak power or frequency of the alpha waves and the status or age of the participants did not allow to identify any statistically significant relationship. The non-parametric normative model (which took account the non-linear effect of age on the alpha profiles) suggested that participants with ASD displayed more variability than control participants for both frequency and amplitude of the alpha peak (p < 0.05). Independent of the status of the individual, we also observed weak associations (uncorrected p < 0.05) between the alpha frequency, and the volumes of several cortical and subcortical structures (in particular the striatum), but which did not survive correction for multiple testing and changed between analysis pelines. Discussions: Our study did not find evidence for abnormal alpha wave profiles in ASD. We propose, however, an analysis pipeline to perform standardized and automatized EEG analyses on large cohorts. These should help the community to address the challenge of clinical heterogeneity of ASD and to tackle the problems of reproducibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline Lefebvre
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Robert Debré Hospital, Paris, France.,Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,CNRS UMR 3571 Genes, Synapses and Cognition, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Paris Cité, Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, University Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Richard Delorme
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Robert Debré Hospital, Paris, France.,Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,CNRS UMR 3571 Genes, Synapses and Cognition, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Paris Cité, Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, University Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Catherine Delanoë
- Neurophysiology Department, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Robert Debré Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Frederique Amsellem
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Robert Debré Hospital, Paris, France.,Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,CNRS UMR 3571 Genes, Synapses and Cognition, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Paris Cité, Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, University Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Anita Beggiato
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Robert Debré Hospital, Paris, France.,Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,CNRS UMR 3571 Genes, Synapses and Cognition, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Paris Cité, Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, University Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - David Germanaud
- Pediatric Neurology Department, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Robert Debré Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Thomas Bourgeron
- Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,CNRS UMR 3571 Genes, Synapses and Cognition, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Paris Cité, Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, University Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Roberto Toro
- Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,CNRS UMR 3571 Genes, Synapses and Cognition, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Paris Cité, Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, University Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Guillaume Dumas
- Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,CNRS UMR 3571 Genes, Synapses and Cognition, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Paris Cité, Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions, University Paris Diderot, Paris, France
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6
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den Bakker H, Sidorov MS, Fan Z, Lee DJ, Bird LM, Chu CJ, Philpot BD. Abnormal coherence and sleep composition in children with Angelman syndrome: a retrospective EEG study. Mol Autism 2018. [PMID: 29719672 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-018-0214-8.] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Angelman syndrome (AS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by intellectual disability, speech and motor impairments, epilepsy, abnormal sleep, and phenotypic overlap with autism. Individuals with AS display characteristic EEG patterns including high-amplitude rhythmic delta waves. Here, we sought to quantitatively explore EEG architecture in AS beyond known spectral power phenotypes. We were motivated by studies of functional connectivity and sleep spindles in autism to study these EEG readouts in children with AS. Methods We analyzed retrospective wake and sleep EEGs from children with AS (age 4-11) and age-matched neurotypical controls. We assessed long-range and short-range functional connectivity by measuring coherence across multiple frequencies during wake and sleep. We quantified sleep spindles using automated and manual approaches. Results During wakefulness, children with AS showed enhanced long-range EEG coherence across a wide range of frequencies. During sleep, children with AS showed increased long-range EEG coherence specifically in the gamma band. EEGs from children with AS contained fewer sleep spindles, and these spindles were shorter in duration than their neurotypical counterparts. Conclusions We demonstrate two quantitative readouts of dysregulated sleep composition in children with AS-gamma coherence and spindles-and describe how functional connectivity patterns may be disrupted during wakefulness. Quantitative EEG phenotypes have potential as biomarkers and readouts of target engagement for future clinical trials and provide clues into how neural circuits are dysregulated in children with AS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna den Bakker
- 1Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA.,2Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA.,3Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA
| | - Michael S Sidorov
- 1Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA.,2Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA.,3Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA
| | - Zheng Fan
- 4Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA
| | - David J Lee
- 5Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, CA USA
| | - Lynne M Bird
- 6Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, CA USA.,7Division of Dysmorphology/Genetics, Rady Children's Hospital, San Diego, CA USA
| | - Catherine J Chu
- 8Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114 USA.,9Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215 USA
| | - Benjamin D Philpot
- 1Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA.,2Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA.,3Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA
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7
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den Bakker H, Sidorov MS, Fan Z, Lee DJ, Bird LM, Chu CJ, Philpot BD. Abnormal coherence and sleep composition in children with Angelman syndrome: a retrospective EEG study. Mol Autism 2018; 9:32. [PMID: 29719672 PMCID: PMC5924514 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-018-0214-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Angelman syndrome (AS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by intellectual disability, speech and motor impairments, epilepsy, abnormal sleep, and phenotypic overlap with autism. Individuals with AS display characteristic EEG patterns including high-amplitude rhythmic delta waves. Here, we sought to quantitatively explore EEG architecture in AS beyond known spectral power phenotypes. We were motivated by studies of functional connectivity and sleep spindles in autism to study these EEG readouts in children with AS. Methods We analyzed retrospective wake and sleep EEGs from children with AS (age 4–11) and age-matched neurotypical controls. We assessed long-range and short-range functional connectivity by measuring coherence across multiple frequencies during wake and sleep. We quantified sleep spindles using automated and manual approaches. Results During wakefulness, children with AS showed enhanced long-range EEG coherence across a wide range of frequencies. During sleep, children with AS showed increased long-range EEG coherence specifically in the gamma band. EEGs from children with AS contained fewer sleep spindles, and these spindles were shorter in duration than their neurotypical counterparts. Conclusions We demonstrate two quantitative readouts of dysregulated sleep composition in children with AS—gamma coherence and spindles—and describe how functional connectivity patterns may be disrupted during wakefulness. Quantitative EEG phenotypes have potential as biomarkers and readouts of target engagement for future clinical trials and provide clues into how neural circuits are dysregulated in children with AS. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13229-018-0214-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna den Bakker
- 1Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA.,2Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA.,3Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA
| | - Michael S Sidorov
- 1Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA.,2Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA.,3Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA
| | - Zheng Fan
- 4Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA
| | - David J Lee
- 5Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, CA USA
| | - Lynne M Bird
- 6Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, CA USA.,7Division of Dysmorphology/Genetics, Rady Children's Hospital, San Diego, CA USA
| | - Catherine J Chu
- 8Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114 USA.,9Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215 USA
| | - Benjamin D Philpot
- 1Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA.,2Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA.,3Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA
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8
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Machado C, Estevez M, Rodriguez R, Leisman G. Letter re: The autism "epidemic": Ethical, legal, and social issues in a developmental spectrum disorder. Neurology 2017; 89:1310. [PMID: 28923888 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000004405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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9
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O’Reilly C, Lewis JD, Elsabbagh M. Is functional brain connectivity atypical in autism? A systematic review of EEG and MEG studies. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0175870. [PMID: 28467487 PMCID: PMC5414938 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0175870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although it is well recognized that autism is associated with altered patterns of over- and under-connectivity, specifics are still a matter of debate. Little has been done so far to synthesize available literature using whole-brain electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) recordings. OBJECTIVES 1) To systematically review the literature on EEG/MEG functional and effective connectivity in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), 2) to synthesize and critically appraise findings related with the hypothesis that ASD is characterized by long-range underconnectivity and local overconnectivity, and 3) to provide, based on the literature, an analysis of tentative factors that are likely to mediate association between ASD and atypical connectivity (e.g., development, topography, lateralization). METHODS Literature reviews were done using PubMed and PsychInfo databases. Abstracts were screened, and only relevant articles were analyzed based on the objectives of this paper. Special attention was paid to the methodological characteristics that could have created variability in outcomes reported between studies. RESULTS Our synthesis provides relatively strong support for long-range underconnectivity in ASD, whereas the status of local connectivity remains unclear. This observation was also mirrored by a similar relationship with lower frequencies being often associated with underconnectivity and higher frequencies being associated with both under- and over-connectivity. Putting together these observations, we propose that ASD is characterized by a general trend toward an under-expression of lower-band wide-spread integrative processes compensated by more focal, higher-frequency, locally specialized, and segregated processes. Further investigation is, however, needed to corroborate the conclusion and its generalizability across different tasks. Of note, abnormal lateralization in ASD, specifically an elevated left-over-right EEG and MEG functional connectivity ratio, has been also reported consistently across studies. CONCLUSIONS The large variability in study samples and methodology makes a systematic quantitative analysis (i.e. meta-analysis) of this body of research impossible. Nevertheless, a general trend supporting the hypothesis of long-range functional underconnectivity can be observed. Further research is necessary to more confidently determine the status of the hypothesis of short-range overconnectivity. Frequency-band specific patterns and their relationships with known symptoms of autism also need to be further clarified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian O’Reilly
- Douglas Mental Health University Institute, 6875 Boulevard Lasalle, Verdun, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, 1033 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - John D. Lewis
- McGill Center for Integrative Neuroscience, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, 3801 University Street, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Mayada Elsabbagh
- Douglas Mental Health University Institute, 6875 Boulevard Lasalle, Verdun, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, 1033 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, QC, Canada
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