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Peterswald TJ, Mieog JC, Azman Halimi R, Magner NJ, Trebilco A, Kretzschmar T, Purdy SJ. Moving Away from 12:12; the Effect of Different Photoperiods on Biomass Yield and Cannabinoids in Medicinal Cannabis. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:1061. [PMID: 36903921 PMCID: PMC10004775 DOI: 10.3390/plants12051061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The standard practice to initiate flowering in medicinal cannabis involves reducing the photoperiod from a long-day period to an equal duration cycle of 12 h light (12L)/12 h dark (12D). This method reflects the short-day flowering dependence of many cannabis varieties but may not be optimal for all. We sought to identify the effect of nine different flowering photoperiod treatments on the biomass yield and cannabinoid concentration of three medicinal cannabis varieties. The first, "Cannatonic", was a high cannabidiol (CBD)-accumulating line, whereas the other two, "Northern Lights" and "Hindu Kush", were high Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) accumulators. The nine treatments tested, following 18 days under 18 h light/6 h dark following cloning and propagation included a standard 12L:12D period, a shortened period of 10L:14D, and a lengthened period of 14L:10D. The other six treatments started in one of the aforementioned and then 28 days later (mid-way through flowering) were switched to one of the other treatments, thus causing either an increase of 2 or 4 h, or a decrease of 2 or 4 h. Measured parameters included the timing of reproductive development; the dry weight flower yield; and the % dry weight of the main target cannabinoids, CBD and THC, from which the total g cannabinoid per plant was calculated. Flower biomass yields were highest for all lines when treatments started with 14L:10D; however, in the two THC lines, a static 14L:10D photoperiod caused a significant decline in THC concentration. Conversely, in Cannatonic, all treatments starting with 14L:10D led to a significant increase in the CBD concentration, which led to a 50-100% increase in total CBD yield. The results show that the assumption that a 12L:12D photoperiod is optimal for all lines is incorrect as, in some lines, yields can be greatly increased by a lengthened light period during flowering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyson James Peterswald
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, 105 Prince Street, Orange, NSW 2800, Australia
| | - Jos Cornelis Mieog
- Southern Cross Plant Science, Southern Cross University, Military Rd., East Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia
| | - Razlin Azman Halimi
- Southern Cross Plant Science, Southern Cross University, Military Rd., East Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia
- School of Agriculture and Food, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Nelson Joel Magner
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, 105 Prince Street, Orange, NSW 2800, Australia
| | - Amy Trebilco
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, 105 Prince Street, Orange, NSW 2800, Australia
| | - Tobias Kretzschmar
- Southern Cross Plant Science, Southern Cross University, Military Rd., East Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia
| | - Sarah Jane Purdy
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, 105 Prince Street, Orange, NSW 2800, Australia
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Stella N. THC and CBD: Similarities and differences between siblings. Neuron 2023; 111:302-327. [PMID: 36638804 PMCID: PMC9898277 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its sibling, cannabidiol (CBD), are produced by the same Cannabis plant and have similar chemical structures but differ dramatically in their mechanisms of action and effects on brain functions. Both THC and CBD exhibit promising therapeutic properties; however, impairments and increased incidence of mental health diseases are associated with acute and chronic THC use, respectively, and significant side effects are associated with chronic use of high-dose CBD. This review covers recent molecular and preclinical discoveries concerning the distinct mechanisms of action and bioactivities of THC and CBD and their impact on human behavior and diseases. These discoveries provide a foundation for the development of cannabinoid-based therapeutics for multiple devastating diseases and to assure their safe use in the growing legal market of Cannabis-based products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nephi Stella
- Department of Pharmacology, Department Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for Cannabis Research, Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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Dang M, Arachchige NM, Campbell LG. Optimizing Photoperiod Switch to Maximize Floral Biomass and Cannabinoid Yield in Cannabis sativa L.: A Meta-Analytic Quantile Regression Approach. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 12:797425. [PMID: 35082815 PMCID: PMC8786113 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.797425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. is an annual, short-day plant, such that long-day lighting promotes vegetative growth while short-day lighting induces flowering. To date, there has been no substantial investigation on how the switch between these photoperiods influences yield of C. sativa despite the tight correlation that plant size and floral biomass have with the timing of photoperiod switches in indoor growing facilities worldwide. Moreover, there are only casual predictions around how the timing of the photoperiodic switch may affect the production of secondary metabolites, like cannabinoids. Here we use a meta-analytic approach to determine when growers should switch photoperiods to optimize C. sativa floral biomass and cannabinoid content. To this end, we searched through ISI Web of Science for peer-reviewed publications of C. sativa that reported experimental photoperiod durations and results containing cannabinoid concentrations and/or floral biomass, then from 26 studies, we estimated the relationship between photoperiod and yield using quantile regression. Floral biomass was maximized when the long daylength photoperiod was minimized (i.e., 14 days), while THC and CBD potency was maximized under long day length photoperiod for ~42 and 49-50 days, respectively. Our work reveals a yield trade-off in C. sativa between cannabinoid concentration and floral biomass where more time spent under long-day lighting maximizes cannabinoid content and less time spent under long-day lighting maximizes floral biomass. Growers should carefully consider the length of long-day lighting exposure as it can be used as a tool to maximize desired yield outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Dang
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nishara Muthu Arachchige
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
- College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Lesley G. Campbell
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
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Olejar KJ, Park SH. Industry-Based Misconceptions Regarding Cross-Pollination of Cannabis spp. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:793264. [PMID: 35154220 PMCID: PMC8826057 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.793264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Cross-pollination of commercial crops has been an ongoing issue in many species. Cannabis spp. encompasses the classifications of marijuana [high in Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)] and hemp (below 0.3% THC). As such, cannabis is the most recent crop facing the dilemma of cross-pollination and is leading to litigation. These litigations are driven by the large misunderstanding of the impacts of cross-pollination within the cannabis industry. The misconception is that if hemp is cross-pollinated by high THC cannabis, the hemp will become "hot" (high in THC) thereby rendering the crop illegal under the 2018 Farm Bill. However, there are many factors that contribute to the amount of THC a plant may produce. This article examines and refutes the misconception of cross-pollination increasing THC levels by highlighting several methods of how THC may become high in a given hemp crop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth J. Olejar
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University Pueblo, Pueblo, CO, United States
| | - Sang-Hyuck Park
- Institute of Cannabis Research, Colorado State University Pueblo, Pueblo, CO, United States
- *Correspondence: Sang-Hyuck Park,
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Woods P, Campbell BJ, Nicodemus TJ, Cahoon EB, Mullen JL, McKay JK. Quantitative Trait Loci Controlling Agronomic and Biochemical Traits in Cannabis sativa. Genetics 2021; 219:6310019. [PMID: 34173826 PMCID: PMC9335937 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyab099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the genetic basis of complex traits is a fundamental goal of evolutionary genetics. Yet, the genetics controlling complex traits in many important species such as hemp (Cannabis sativa) remain poorly investigated. Because hemp’s change in legal status with the 2014 and 2018 U.S. Federal Farm Bills, interest in the genetics controlling its numerous agriculturally important traits has steadily increased. To better understand the genetics of agriculturally important traits in hemp, we developed an F2 population by crossing two phenotypically distinct hemp cultivars (Carmagnola and USO31). Using whole-genome sequencing, we mapped quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with variation in numerous agronomic and biochemical traits. A total of 69 loci associated with agronomic (34) and biochemical (35) trait variation were identified. We found that most QTL co-localized, suggesting that the phenotypic distinctions between Carmagnola and USO31 are largely controlled by a small number of loci. We identified TINY and olivetol synthase as candidate genes underlying co-localized QTL clusters for agronomic and biochemical traits, respectively. We functionally validated the olivetol synthase candidate by expressing the alleles in yeast. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry assays of extracts from these yeast colonies suggest that the USO31 olivetol synthase is functionally less active and potentially explains why USO31 produces lower cannabinoids compared to Carmagnola. Overall, our results help modernize the genomic understanding of complex traits in hemp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Woods
- Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America.,Department of Agricultural Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
| | - Brian J Campbell
- Department of Agricultural Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
| | - Timothy J Nicodemus
- Center for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68588, United States of America
| | - Edgar B Cahoon
- Center for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68588, United States of America
| | - Jack L Mullen
- Department of Agricultural Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
| | - John K McKay
- Department of Agricultural Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
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