Expert Guidelines for the Treatment of Severe PMS, PMDD, and Comorbidities: The Role of SSRIs

Association between severe premenstrual disorders and change of romantic relationship: A prospective cohort of 15,606 women in Sweden

BACKGROUND

Premenstrual disorders (PMDs) affect women's quality of life, yet the impact on romantic relationships remains unclear. This study aimed to examine the association between severe PMDs and relationship disruption and initiation.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective cohort study of 15,606 women during 2009-2021 in Sweden. PMDs were assessed with the modified Premenstrual Symptom Screening Tool at baseline (one-time retrospective self-report), while relationship status was obtained from national population registers during follow-up. Poisson regression was employed to assess the risk of relationship change.

RESULTS

At baseline (mean age 33.5 years), 1666 (10.6 %) women met the criteria for severe PMDs. All women were followed for 9.1 years on average for any change of relationship status. Among married/cohabiting women, PMDs were positively associated with relationship disruption (Incidence risk ratio, IRR =1.21, 95 % CI: 1.01-1.43, p = 0.03). A more pronounced association was suggested for premenstrual dysphoric disorder (IRR = 1.22, 95 % CI: 1.01-1.45, p = 0.03) than severe premenstrual syndrome (IRR = 1.01, 95 % CI: 0.43-1.96, p = 0.98) and among women without depression/anxiety (IRR = 1.21, 95 % CI: 1.00-1.47, p < 0.05) than among those with (IRR = 0.99, 95 % CI: 0.61-1.54 p = 0.96) and IRR = 1.01, 95 % CI: 0.57-1.72, p = 0.97). Among single women, a null association was found between PMDs and relationship initiation (IRR = 1.05, 95 % CI: 0.95-1.15, p = 0.32).

LIMITATIONS

PMDs were not assessed using prospective symptom charting.

CONCLUSIONS

Married/cohabiting women with probable severe PMDs have an increased risk of relationship disruption. PMDs were not associated with relationship initiation in single women. Healthcare professionals should recognize relationship challenges in women with severe PMDs, and they may require support to maintain healthy relationships.

Premenstrual disorders and PMDD - a review

Defining, diagnosing and managing premenstrual disorders (PMDs) remains a challenge both for general practitioners and specialists. Yet these disorders are common and can have an enormous impact on women. PMDD (premenstrual dysphoric disorder), one severe form of PMD, has a functional impact similar to major depression yet remains under-recognised and poorly treated. The aim of this chapter is to give some clarity to this area, provide a framework for non-specialists to work towards, and to stress the importance of MDT care for severe PMDs, including PMDD.

Intermittent selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for premenstrual syndromes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials

BACKGROUND

Intermittent (luteal phase) dosing of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors is one treatment strategy for premenstrual syndromes such as premenstrual dysphoric disorder. This avoids the risk of the antidepressant withdrawal syndrome associated with long-term continuous dosing.

AIMS

To compare intermittent dosing to continuous dosing in terms of efficacy and acceptability.

METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, PubMed and CINAHL for randomised trials of intermittent compared with continuous dosing of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in premenstrual syndromes. We extracted response rates, dropout rates and changes in symptom scores. We used random effects meta-analyses to pool study-level data and calculated odds ratio for dichotomous data and standardised mean difference for continuous data. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool. The study was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020224176).

RESULTS

A total of 1841 references were identified, with eight studies being eligible for analysis, consisting of a total of 460 participants. All included studies provided response rates, six provided dropout rates and five provided symptom scores. There was no statistically significant differences between intermittent and continuous dosing in terms of response rate (odds ratio: 1.0, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.23-4.31, I2 = 71%), dropout rate (odds ratio 1.26, 95% CI: 0.39-4.09, I2 = 33%) or symptom change (standardised mean difference: 0.04, 95% CI: -0.27 to 0.35, I2 = 39%). All studies had a moderate or high risk of bias.

CONCLUSION

Since intermittent dosing avoids the potential for withdrawal symptoms, it should be considered more commonly in this patient population.

The pharmacotherapeutic management of premenstrual dysphoric disorder

INTRODUCTION

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is a prevalent psychiatric condition associated with substantial mental distress, impaired psychosocial functioning, high rates of co-morbid psychiatric conditions, and elevated risk of suicide.

AREAS COVERED

We provide an update on epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and diagnosis of PMDD, with a focus on the pharmacological management of this condition.

EXPERT OPINION

Given the high rates of false positives from retrospective assessments, prospective daily symptom monitoring for a minimal of two symptomatic menstrual cycles is critical to accurately confirm (or rule out) the diagnosis of PMDD. Serotonin-based antidepressants are well-established first-line treatments of PMDD. Second-line treatment includes the use of combined, monophasic oral contraceptives. In mild to moderate cases, independent meta-analyses have shown efficacy of Chasteberry extract (Vitex agnus cactus). Preliminary results with compounds blocking the synthesis of allopregnanolone are promising.

Patient Experiences of Health Care Providers in Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder: Examining the Role of Provider Specialty

Background: Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is a severe mood disorder that affects ∼5% of menstruating individuals. Although symptoms are limited to the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, PMDD causes significant distress and impairment across a range of activities. PMDD is under-recognized by health care providers, can be difficult to diagnose, and lies at the intersection of gynecology and psychiatry. Thus, many patients are misdiagnosed, or encounter challenges in seeking care. The aim of this study was to examine patients' experiences with different health care specialties when seeking care for PMDD symptoms. Methods: We examined data from the 2018 Global Survey of Premenstrual Disorders conducted by the International Association for Premenstrual Disorders (IAPMD). Patients rated their health care providers (general practitioners, psychiatrists, gynecologists, psychotherapists) in three key areas related to treatment of premenstrual mood complaints: interpersonal factors, awareness and knowledge of PMDD, and whether the patient was asked to track symptoms daily. Intraclass correlations examined between- and within-person variance. Multilevel regression models predicted ratings on each provider competency item, with ratings nested within individuals to examine the within-patient effect of provider type on outcomes. Results: The sample included 2,512 patients who reported seeking care for PMDD symptoms. Regarding interpersonal factors, psychotherapists were generally rated the highest. On awareness and knowledge of PMDD, gynecologists and psychiatrists were generally rated the highest. Gynecologists were more likely than other providers to ask patients to track symptoms daily. Conclusions: These findings suggest that different providers have different strengths in assessing and treating PMDD. Further, graduate and medical training programs may benefit from increased curricular development regarding evidence-based evaluation and treatment of PMDD.

Effect of Garlic (Allium sativum) Supplementation on Premenstrual Disorders: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial

Background

Premenstrual disorders involve physical, behavioral, and mood variations that affect women of childbearing age and interfere with family relationships, household responsibilities, professional duties, and social activities.

Objectives

Considering the side effects of conventional medications, their use is not recommended except in severe cases of premenstrual disorders. Nowadays, there is a tendency to use traditional and complementary medicine that offers various treatments. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the impacts of garlic as a herbal medicine on the severity of premenstrual symptoms.

Methods

This study was a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. After identification of participants with moderate-to-severe PMS through the premenstrual symptoms screening tools questionnaire (PSST), they were randomly assigned to placebo (n = 64) or garlic (n = 65) groups. Each participant received one tablet daily for three consecutive cycles and logged the severity of their symptoms in the PSST questionnaire during the intervention period.

Results

There was no significant difference between the two groups in the baseline level of premenstrual symptoms before the intervention. After treatment with garlic for three consecutive cycles, the total score of the severity of premenstrual symptoms significantly (P < 0.001) reduced from 34.09 ± 7.31 to 11.21 ± 7.17. In the placebo group, this score changed from 33.35 ± 7.96 to 24.28 ± 7.22. The difference between mean changes in the two groups was 13.78, with a 95% Confidence Interval (CI) of 11.23–16.33. No serious side effects were observed in either group.

Conclusion

Our findings highlight the potential effect of garlic in reducing the severity of premenstrual symptoms; therefore, the use of garlic can be considered as an alternative therapy in the prevention and treatment of premenstrual disorders.

Suicidal Risk in Women with Premenstrual Syndrome and Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Purpose: Women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) and premenstrual syndrome (PMS) experience substantial functional impairment and decreased quality of life. While previous research has highlighted a relationship between premenstrual disturbances and suicide risk, no meta-analysis has been conducted to quantitatively assess the findings. Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted by searching the literature in three databases (Pubmed, PsycINFO, and EMBASE) on July 15, 2020. Studies that assessed the relationship between suicidality (attempt, ideation, and/or plan) and premenstrual disturbance (PMDD, PMS, and/or premenstrual symptoms) were included. Results: Thirteen studies were included in the qualitative review (n = 10 included in meta-analysis). Results revealed that women with PMDD are almost seven times at higher risk of suicide attempt (OR: 6.97; 95% CI: 2.98-16.29, p < 0.001) and almost four times as likely to exhibit suicidal ideation (OR: 3.95; 95% CI: 2.97-5.24, p < 0.001). Similarly, women with PMS are also at increased risk of suicidal ideation (OR: 10.06; 95% CI: 1.32 to -76.67, p = 0.03), but not for suicide attempt (OR: 1.85; 95% CI: 0.77 to -4.46, p = 0.17). Conclusions: Women with PMDD and PMS are at higher risk of suicidality compared with women without premenstrual disturbances. These findings support routine suicidal risk assessments for women who suffer from moderate-to-severe premenstrual disturbance. Furthermore, psychosocial treatments for women diagnosed with PMS/PMDD should consider and target suicidality to minimize risk and improve well-being.

Addictive behaviors across the menstrual cycle: a systematic review

Research examining relations between menstrual cycle phase and female addictive behaviors is accumulating. Theories suggest addictive behaviors may increase during specific phases of the menstrual cycle resulting from cyclical fluctuations in hormones and affect. In line with self-medication theory, we predicted that addictive behaviors would increase premenstrually and menstrually, phases marked by elevations in negative affect, relative to the follicular and luteal phases. We also hypothesized, coinciding with reward-sensitivity theory, that addictive behaviors may increase during ovulation, a phase characterized by increased positive affect, compared to the same phases. This systematic review summarizes extant literature examining the menstrual cycle phase-addictive behavior relationship and underlying motivations. Articles pertaining to menstrual cycle phase and addictive behaviors within the PsycINFO, CINAL, and PubMED databases were screened to determine eligibility following PRISMA guidelines (n = 1568). Thirty-four articles examining alcohol use, cannabis use, nicotine use, caffeine use, and gambling behavior across menstrual cycle phase met inclusion criteria. Consistent with self-medication theory, strong evidence indicated that nicotine use increased premenstrually and menstrually. Other factors increasing both nicotine and alcohol use premenstrually and menstrually include having a premenstrual dysphoric disorder diagnosis or having premenstrual syndrome. Motivations for using alcohol and nicotine may too vary by menstrual cycle phase. Results were less consistent or understudied for other addictive behaviors and thus conclusions cannot be drawn. Menstrual cycle phase appears to be a female-specific factor affecting some addictive behaviors, particularly nicotine use, and should be considered when conducting addictive behavior research or clinical interventions for reproductive-aged females with addictive disorders.

Major depressive disorder subtypes and depression symptoms in multiple sclerosis: What is different compared to the general population?

OBJECTIVE

To compare and characterize major depressive disorder (MDD) subtypes (i.e., pure atypical, pure melancholic and mixed atypical-melancholic) and depression symptoms in persons with multiple sclerosis (PwMS) with persons without MS (Pw/oMS) fulfilling the DSM-5 criteria for a past 12-month MDD.

METHODS

MDD in PwMS (n = 92) from the Swiss Multiple Sclerosis Registry was compared with Pw/oMS (n = 277) from a Swiss community-based study. Epidemiological MDD diagnoses were based on the Mini-SPIKE (shortened form of the Structured Psychopathological Interview and Rating of the Social Consequences for Epidemiology). Logistic and multinomial regression analyses (adjusted for sex, age, civil status, depression and severity) were computed for comparisons and characterization. Latent class analysis (LCA) was conducted to empirically identify depression subtypes in PwMS.

RESULTS

PwMS had a higher risk for the mixed atypical-melancholic MDD subtype (OR = 2.22, 95% CI = 1.03-4.80) compared to Pw/oMS. MDD in PwMS was specifically characterized by a higher risk of the two somatic atypical depression symptoms 'weight gain' (OR = 6.91, 95% CI = 2.20-21.70) and 'leaden paralysis' (OR = 3.03, 95% CI = 1.35-6.82) and the symptom 'irritable/angry' (OR = 3.18, 95% CI = 1.08-9.39).

CONCLUSIONS

MDD in PwMS was characterized by a higher risk for specific somatic atypical depression symptoms and the mixed atypical-melancholic MDD subtype. The pure atypical MDD subtype, however, did not differentiate between PwMS and Pw/oMS. Given the high phenomenological overlap with MS symptoms, the mixed atypical-melancholic MDD subtype represents a particular diagnostic challenge.

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome, Affective Symptoms, and Neuroactive Steroids: a Focus on Allopregnanolone

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To provide an overview of existing studies on alterations in gonadal and neuroactive steroids (NASs) and mood symptoms among women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent studies have demonstrated a previously underappreciated association between PCOS and comorbid depression and anxiety. However, most studies on affective symptoms among women with PCOS have been cross-sectional, limiting our knowledge about fluctuations in symptoms over the menstrual cycle and reproductive lifespan for women with PCOS, as well as the potential interplay between NAS alterations and mood symptoms. Changes in the NAS allopregnanolone (ALLO) have been implicated in several reproductive-related psychiatric disorders (e.g., premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) and postpartum depression (PPD)) as well as in normal reproductive functioning, warranting further investigation for its potential role in the psychiatric symptoms observed in women with PCOS. Prospective studies evaluating associations between psychiatric symptoms and NAS are needed to elucidate the biological causes of the increased rates of psychiatric symptoms among women with PCOS and inform clinical treatment. ALLO, with its role in normal reproductive function, menstrual dysregulation among women with PCOS, and reproductive-related psychiatric conditions, makes it a particularly intriguing candidate for future investigation.

CNS genomic profiling in the mouse chronic social stress model implicates a novel category of candidate genes integrating affective pathogenesis

Despite high prevalence, medical impact and societal burden, anxiety, depression and other affective disorders remain poorly understood and treated. Clinical complexity and polygenic nature complicate their analyses, often revealing genetic overlap and cross-disorder heritability. However, the interplay or overlaps between disordered phenotypes can also be based on shared molecular pathways and 'crosstalk' mechanisms, which themselves may be genetically determined. We have earlier predicted (Kalueff et al., 2014) a new class of 'interlinking' brain genes that do not affect the disordered phenotypes per se, but can instead specifically determine their interrelatedness. To test this hypothesis experimentally, here we applied a well-established rodent chronic social defeat stress model, known to progress in C57BL/6J mice from the Anxiety-like stage on Day 10 to Depression-like stage on Day 20. The present study analyzed mouse whole-genome expression in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus during the Day 10, the Transitional (Day 15) and Day 20 stages in this model. Our main question here was whether a putative the Transitional stage (Day 15) would reveal distinct characteristic genomic responses from Days 10 and 20 of the model, thus reflecting unique molecular events underlining the transformation or switch from anxiety to depression pathogenesis. Overall, while in the Day 10 (Anxiety) group both brain regions showed major genomic alterations in various neurotransmitter signaling pathways, the Day 15 (Transitional) group revealed uniquely downregulated astrocyte-related genes, and the Day 20 (Depression) group demonstrated multiple downregulated genes of cell adhesion, inflammation and ion transport pathways. Together, these results reveal a complex temporal dynamics of mouse affective phenotypes as they develop. Our genomic profiling findings provide first experimental support to the idea that novel brain genes (activated here only during the Transitional stage) may uniquely integrate anxiety and depression pathogenesis and, hence, determine the progression from one pathological state to another. This concept can potentially be extended to other brain conditions as well. This preclinical study also further implicates cilial and astrocytal mechanisms in the pathogenesis of affective disorders.

Beneficial Role of Calcium in Premenstrual Syndrome: A Systematic Review of Current Literature

Since premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is one of the most common and debilitating disorders in women, risk factor modification is an urgent health priority. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to summarize and discuss the outcomes of observational and interventional studies in humans regarding the relationship between Calcium and PMS. PubMed, Scopus, ISI web of sciences and Google scholar were searched up to January 2019 to identify relevant studies. The Newcastle-Ottawa and Jadad scales were used for quality assessment. A total of 14 studies (8 interventional and 6 observational) met our inclusion criteria. Majority of the studies showed that not only serum calcium levels are lower in PMS subjects, but also calcium supplementation could significantly improve the incidence of PMS and its related symptoms. This systematic review suggests a beneficial role for calcium in PMS subjects. However, in order to draw a firm link between calcium and PMS, further dose-response clinical trials with larger sample size and better methodological design are warranted.

Differential effects of the menstrual cycle on reactive and proactive aggression in borderline personality disorder

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is characterized by rapidly shifting symptoms, including intense anger and aggressive behavior. Understanding how fluctuations in ovarian hormones across the menstrual cycle may contribute to symptom instability is key for accurate assessment of BPD symptoms and effective interventions. Reactive and proactive aggression, as well as anger-in and anger-out, were assessed daily in 15 physically healthy, unmedicated naturally cycling female individuals meeting criteria for BPD across 35 days. Urine luteinizing hormone surge and salivary progesterone were used to confirm ovulation and verify the cycle phase. Multilevel models evaluated cyclical differences of symptoms between cycle phases. Both forms of aggressive behavior demonstrated marked cycle effects, with reactive aggression highest during the midluteal cycle phase, co-occurring with initial increases in anger and irritability and followed by perimenstrual peaks in anger and anger-in. In contrast, highest levels of proactive aggression were observed during the follicular and ovulatory phases, when emotional symptoms and anger were otherwise at lowest levels. These findings highlight the importance of identifying the function of aggression when considering potential psychological and biological influences. Naturally cycling individuals with BPD may be at elevated risk for luteal worsening of a range of interpersonally reactive symptoms, including reactive aggression, whereas proactive aggression may occur more in phases characterized by less emotional and cognitive vulnerability and greater reward sensitivity. Research on aggression in this population should consider cycle effects. Cycling individuals with BPD attempting to reduce aggressive behavior may benefit from cycle-tracking to increase awareness of these effects and to develop appropriate strategies.

Development of a Japanese Version of the Daily Record of Severity of Problems for Diagnosing Premenstrual Syndrome

Background: Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) causes physical and mental symptoms in women during the luteal phase of the menstruation cycle. To confirm the relationship between symptoms and the menstruation cycle, daily symptom records are essential for diagnosing PMS. The daily record of severity of problems (DRSP) is currently the most validated tool for tracking symptoms to confirm and scale the severity of PMS, but there has been no validated Japanese version of this instrument. We developed a Japanese version of the DRSP and assessed its psychometric properties.

Methods: A Japanese version of the DRSP was developed following the translation guidelines of the latest Patient-Reported Outcomes Consortium. We conducted a computational psychometric study among 119 women, all of whom completed the Japanese version of the DRSP, the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), the Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD) scale, and a Numerical Rating Scale (NRS) for general health status. Each was filled out twice, 2 weeks apart, so that one set was completed in the luteal phase.

Results: The Japanese version of the DRSP was developed with translation and cultural adaptation. The internal consistency coefficient for the total score was 0.93. The DRSP in the luteal phase correlated highly with the CES-D, PMDD scale, and NRS for general health status.

Conclusions: Our Japanese version of the DRSP, developed as a PMS/PMDD diagnostic tool, was shown to provide substantial validity and reliability to rate premenstrual symptoms for Japanese women.

Ovarian Hormones as a Source of Fluctuating Biological Vulnerability in Borderline Personality Disorder

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To examine the potential role of ovarian hormones in biological vulnerability to borderline personality disorder (BPD). The review focuses primarily on research examining the menstrual cycle as a source of short-term lability of BPD symptom expression, while discussing the currently understudied possibility of ovarian hormone influence in the developmental course of BPD.

FINDINGS

Several patterns of menstrual cycle effects on BPD symptoms and relevant features in non-clinical samples have been observed in empirical studies. Most symptoms demonstrated patterns consistent with perimenstrual exacerbation; however, timing varied between high and low arousal symptoms, potentially reflecting differing mechanisms. Symptoms are typically lowest around ovulation, with an exception for proactive aggression and some forms of impulsive behaviors. Preliminary evidence suggests ovarian hormones may exert strong effects on BPD symptom expression, and further research is warranted examining mechanisms and developing interventions. Recommendations for researchers and clinicians working with BPD are provided.

Contraception counseling for women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD): current perspectives

Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD) is a severe form of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) affecting up to 7% of reproductive age women. Women with PMDD are of reproductive age; therefore, contraception and treatment of PMDD are important considerations. The disorder as described in the DSM-V is characterized by moderate to severe psychological, behavioral and physical symptoms beginning up to two weeks prior to menses, resolving soon after the onset of menstruation and significantly interfering with daily functioning. PMDD develops in predisposed individuals after they are exposed to progesterone at the time of ovulation. It has been hypothesized that PMDD is in part attributable to luteal phase abnormalities in serotonergic activity and to altered configuration of ℽ-aminobutyric acid subunit A (GABA_A) receptors in the brain triggered by the exposure to the neuroactive steroid progesterone metabolite, allopregnanolone (Allo). A large body of evidence suggests that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) can be effective in the treatment of PMDD. Combined hormonal contraceptive (CHC) pills, specifically the 20 mcg ethinyl estradiol/3mg drospirenone in a 24/4 extended cycle regimen has been shown to significantly improve the emotional and physical symptoms of PMDD. Other combined monophasic, extended cycle hormonal contraceptive pills with less androgenic progestins may also be helpful, although not well studied. Copper intrauterine devices (IUDs) are recommended for those not seeking hormonal contraceptives. Progestin-only methods including the progestin-only pill (POP), levonorgestrel (LNG) IUD, etonorgestrel implant or depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) have the potential to negatively affect mood symptoms for women with or without baseline mood disorders, including PMDD. Careful counseling and close follow-up is recommended for patients with PMDD seeking these contraceptive methods.

PMS: diagnosis, aetiology, assessment and management

This article reviews our understanding of the epidemiology and aetiology of premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder, and its assessment and management. It also addresses the concerns of the feminist community and the views of women themselves about this condition and its management. Service provision in the UK for women with these problems is unfocused and greatly varying, and they might be better assessed and treated by psychiatrists.

Vitex agnus castus for premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder: a systematic review

The objective of this study was to evaluate whether Vitex agnus castus is a safe and effective treatment for PMS and premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) and to discuss the implications of these findings for clinical practice. A systematic review of literature was conducted using PubMed and Scielo databases. The inclusion criteria were randomized controlled trials (RCT) using V. agnus castus in individuals with PMS or PMDD that compared this intervention with placebo or an active comparator and included a description of blinding and dropouts/withdrawals. The search was conducted by two independent investigators who reached consensus on the included trials. A total of eight RCTs were included in this study. Most studies focused on PMS, and the diagnostic criteria of PMS and PMDD changed over the years. Three different preparations of V. agnus castus (VAC) were tested, and there was significant variability in the measurement of treatment outcomes between the studies. Nevertheless, all eight studies were positive for VAC in the treatment of PMS or PMDD and VAC was overall well tolerated. Main limitations were differences in definition of diagnostic criteria, the instruments used as main outcome measures, and different preparations of VAC extracts limit the comparison of results between studies. In conclusion, the RCTs using VAC for treatment of PMS/PMDD suggested that the VAC extract is a safe and efficacious alternative to be considered for the treatment of PMS/PMDD symptoms.

Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder: Contemporary Diagnosis and Management

Most ovulatory women experience premenstrual symptoms (premenstrual syndrome, molimina) which indicate impending menstruation and are of little clinical relevance because they do not affect quality of life. A few women, however, experience significant physical and/or psychological symptoms before menstruation that, if left untreated, would result in deterioration in functioning and relationships. The precise etiology remains elusive, although new theories are gaining support in pre-clinical and early clinical trials. Refined diagnostic criteria allow better discrimination of this condition from other psychiatric diagnoses and the selection of symptom appropriate therapies that afford relief for most women. Pharmacotherapies (particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and SNRIs) represent the first-line treatment for premenstrual dysphoric disorder and severe, mood-related premenstrual syndrome. Continuous combined oral contraceptives have limited evidence for usefulness in premenstrual dysphoric disorder, whereas medical ovarian suppression is often recommended for patients who fail to respond or cannot tolerate first-line treatments (e.g., selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors). The use of cognitive behavioural therapies is promising, but it remains limited by sparse data and restricted access to trained professionals. A proper diagnosis (particularly the distinction from other underlying psychiatric conditions) is crucial for the implementation of effective therapy and alleviation of this impairing condition.

Improvements in Quality-Adjusted Life Years and Cost-Utility After Pharmacotherapy for Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder: A Retrospective Study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

To investigate the cost-effectiveness of pharmacotherapy for premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), a relatively new classification of depressive disorder that is characterized by recurrent depression during the premenstrual phase of the menstrual cycle.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective analysis of data from 49 previously untreated PMDD patients who visited our psychiatric department between October 2013 and February 2016 and received pharmacotherapy for 3 or 6 subsequent menstrual cycles. Quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) were estimated across individual menstrual cycles using mean EuroQoL-5D values. Direct costs per patient were estimated in order to conduct a preliminary cost-effectiveness analysis.

RESULTS

Pharmacotherapy produced a 0.190-point increase in mean EuroQoL-5D score per menstrual cycle after 6 menstrual cycles and an improvement of approximately 0.2 QALYs. Based on direct costs of 156,000 yen per patient, the cost-effectiveness of pharmacotherapy was calculated to be 823,000 yen per QALY. A cost-effectiveness acceptability curve analysis indicated that escitalopram tended to be superior to sertraline when willingness to pay per QALY was over 4,000,000 yen, whereas sertraline was superior when willingness to pay was below 2,000,000 yen.

CONCLUSIONS

Pharmacotherapy is cost effective for the treatment of PMDD. Moreover, escitalopram is a more cost-effective option than sertraline when willingness to pay is sufficiently high.

Treatment of Premenstrual Breakthrough of Depression With Adjunctive Oral Contraceptive Pills Compared With Placebo

PURPOSE/BACKGROUND

Two-thirds of women with depressive disorders report reemergence of depression premenstrually, or premenstrual exacerbation (PME), despite effective treatment of the underlying mood disorder during the remainder of the cycle. There is a paucity of studies that rigorously assess treatments targeting PME. Open-label data suggest that augmentation of antidepressants with the oral contraceptive pill (OCP) drospirenone and ethinyl estradiol (DRSP/EE) improves depressive symptoms that break through treatment premenstrually. We now report results of a randomized placebo-controlled OCP augmentation trial.

METHODS

Women with unipolar depressive disorders in remission on stable antidepressant doses with a 30% increase in Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) scores from the follicular to luteal phase were randomized to double-blind augmentation of antidepressant with either DRSP/EE or placebo for 2 months. The MADRS and Daily Record of Severity of Problems (DRSP) measures were anchored to the menstrual cycle phase.

FINDINGS/RESULTS

Of 32 women randomized, 25 (n = 12 DRSP/EE, n = 13 placebo) completed the trial. Premenstrual MADRS scores declined by a median of 43.6% and 38.9% (P = 0.59), and premenstrual DRSP scores declined by a median of 23.5% and 20.9% (P = 0.62) in the DRSP/EE and placebo groups, respectively. There was a trend toward greater improvement in premenstrual DRSP scores for women with fewer lifetime depressive episodes (r = -0.40, P = 0.06).

IMPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS

Findings from this small randomized trial suggest that OCP augmentation of antidepressants may not be effective for treating premenstrual breakthrough of depression. Future studies should target women established to have hormonal sensitivity prior to antidepressant therapy and those with fewer lifetime depressive episodes.

Reduction of quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) in patients with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD)

PURPOSE

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) refers to the depression that occurs during the premenstrual phase and remits soon after the onset of menses. It affects the quality of life (QOL) of patients with PMDD. Therefore, this preliminary survey from chart recordings aimed to understand the symptom appearance and QOL reduction patterns in patients with PMDD, and to examine the extent of the loss of their quality-adjusted life years (QALYs).

METHODS

Participants were 66 untreated female patients with PMDD. Data on symptom appearance and QOL reduction during the menstrual cycle, and the EuroQoL-5D (EQ-5D) scores during the premenstrual phase and immediately after the completion of a menstrual period were collected.

RESULTS

The mean EQ-5D score of the 66 patients with PMDD was 0.795 ± 0.120 (range 0.362-0.949), indicating that their expected mean loss of QALYs was about 0.14 years.

CONCLUSIONS

If untreated, PMDD is expected to cause a mean loss of QALYs of about 0.14 years. However, on accounting for the period from disease development to menopause, and subtracting the menstruation-free periods such as pregnancy and breastfeeding, patients with untreated PMDD are expected to experience a QALY loss of about 3 years during their lifetime.

Premenstrual Exacerbations: Achieving Stability All Month, Every Month

Premenstrual syndrome, premenstrual dysphoric disorder, or premenstrual exacerbation of a psychiatric condition may disrupt 10 years of a woman's life over the course of her reproductive lifespan. As health care practitioners, nurses see women who experience these premenstrual symptom exacerbations in all treatment settings. Premenstrual exacerbation of psychiatric illness is a common phenomenon, and it is treatable; however, research is limited and evidence-based guidelines for treatment are sparse. The current article offers insights and an algorithm, extrapolated from the existing literature, into a lesser-known treatment strategy, semi-intermittent dosing, which will provide symptom stability all month, every month. [Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 55(4), 9-13.].

Vitamin D Supplementation for Premenstrual Syndrome-Related Mood Disorders in Adolescents with Severe Hypovitaminosis D

STUDY OBJECTIVE

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) might become severe enough to interfere with normal interpersonal relationships. This study was planned to assess whether administration of vitamin D (200,000 IU at first, followed by 25,000 IU every 2 weeks) for a 4-month period might lessen the appearance and the intensity of mood disorders associated with PMS in young girls with severe hypovitaminosis D. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, INTERVENTIONS, AND MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: One hundred fifty-eight young girls (15-21 years old) with PMS-related severe symptoms of the emotional and cognitive domains and low serum 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25-OH-D) levels (≤10 ng/mL) were randomly assigned to two treatment groups and treated for 4 months with vitamin D (group 1; n = 80) or placebo (group 2; n = 78). Clinical and hormonal effects were compared between the two groups.

RESULTS

In patients from group 1, levels of vitamin D reached the normal range (35-60 ng/mL) after the first month and remained stable throughout the whole study. At the end of treatment, anxiety score decreased from 51 to 20 (P < .001 vs baseline); irritability score declined from 130 to 70 (P < .001 vs baseline). Crying easily and sadness decreased by a score of 41 and 51 to a score of 30 and 31, respectively (P < .001). For disturbed relationships, the score decreased from 150 to 70 (P < .001). Conversely, no appreciable changes were noted in symptom intensity from patients of group 2. The frequency of adverse events (nausea and constipation) was not different between participants of group 1 and group 2.

CONCLUSION

On the basis of the present findings, vitamin D therapy can be proposed as a safe, effective, and convenient method for improving the quality of life in young women with severe hypovitaminosis D and concomitant mood disorders associated with PMS.

Beta-Arrestin1 Levels in Mononuclear Leukocytes Support Depression Scores for Women with Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder

Depression is very common in reproductive women particularly with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), which is a severe form of premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Beta-arrestins were previously implicated in the pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment for mood disorders. This study examined whether a measurement for beta-arrestin1 levels in peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes (PBMC), could aid to distinguish between PMDD and PMS. Study participants (n = 25) were non-pregnant women between 18-42 years of age with the symptoms of PMS/PMDD, but not taking any antidepressants/therapy and at the luteal phase of menstruation. The levels of beta-arrestin1 protein in the PBMCs were determined by ELISA using human beta-arrestin1 kit. The beta-arrestin1 levels were compared with the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale scores among these women. The magnitude of the different parameters for Axis 1 mental disorders were significantly higher and beta arrestin1 protein levels in PBMCs were significantly lower in women with PMDD as compared to PMS women. The reduction in beta arrestin1 protein levels was significantly correlated with the severity of depressive symptoms. Beta-arrestin1 measurements in women may potentially serve for biochemical diagnostic purposes for PMDD and might be useful as evidence-based support for questionnaires.

Double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study of adjunctive quetiapine SR in the treatment of PMS/PMDD

OBJECTIVE

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), a more severe form of premenstrual syndrome (PMS), afflicts 5-8% of reproductive age women and results in significant functional impairment. We conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of adjunctive quetiapine in patients with PMS/PMDD who had inadequate response to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor/serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor therapy for their symptoms.

METHODS

A PMS/PMDD diagnosis was confirmed by 2-month prospective diagnostic assessment of PMS/PMDD using the Prospective Record of the Impact and Severity of Premenstrual Symptoms (PRISM) calendar. Women were randomized equally to receive quetiapine sustained-release (SR) or placebo (25-mg starting dose) during the luteal phase for 3 months. Outcome variables included the Hamilton Depression and Anxiety Scales, Clinical Global Impression Scale, and PRISM.

RESULTS

Twenty women were enrolled in the treatment phase. Although the study was underpowered, greater reductions in luteal phase mood ratings were observed in the quetiapine group on the 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, Clinical Global Impression improvement rating, and PRISM daily score. The quetiapine group showed most improvement in symptoms of mood lability, anxiety, and irritability.

CONCLUSION

This small double-blind study suggests that adjunctive treatment with quetiapine SR may be a useful addition to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor therapy in women with PMS/PMDD by reducing symptoms and improving quality of life.

Acute intermittent porphyria symptoms during the menstrual cycle

BACKGROUND

Acute intermittent porphyria (AIP), a life-threatening form of the disease, is accompanied by several pain, mental and physical symptoms.

AIMS

In this study, we evaluated the cyclicity of AIP and premenstrual syndrome (PMS) symptoms in 32 women with DNA-diagnosed AIP during their menstrual cycles, in northern Sweden.

METHODS

The cyclicity of AIP symptoms and differences in them between the follicular and luteal phases, and the cyclicity of each symptom in each individual woman in different phases of her menstrual cycle were analysed with a prospective daily rating questionnaire. PMS symptoms were also evaluated in the patients on a daily rating scale.

RESULTS

Of the 32 women, 30 showed significant cyclicity in at least one AIP or PMS symptom (P < 0.05-0.001). Back pain (10/32) was the most frequent AIP pain symptom and sweet craving (10/15) was the most frequent PMS symptom. Pelvic pain (F = 4.823, P = 0.036), irritability (F = 7.399, P = 0.011), cheerfulness (F = 5.563, P = 0.025), sexual desire (F = 8.298, P = 0.007), friendliness (F = 6.157, P = 0.019), breast tenderness (F = 21.888, P = 0.000) and abdominal swelling (F = 16.982, P = 0.000) showed significant cyclicity. Pelvic pain and abdominal swelling (rs = 0.337, P < 0.001) showed the strongest correlation. The age of women with latent AIP was strongly correlated with abdominal swelling during the luteal phase (rs = 0.493, P < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that the symptoms of AIP patients change during their menstrual cycles.

The effects of vitamin B1 on ameliorating the premenstrual syndrome symptoms

Background and Objective:

The premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is a series of physical, mental, and behavioral symptoms with various severities, and disturbs social and personal relationships. The syndrome appears during luteal phase of the menstrual cycle and is a common disorder of reproductive age. Different treatments have been introduced for the syndrome due to its unknown complicated causes. Vitamin B1 (Thiamin) may reduce symptoms of the syndrome through affecting the performance of coenzymes in the metabolism of carbohydrates and main branch of amino acid that plays an important role in appearance of physical and mental symptoms of the PMS. Vitamin B1 is the first water-soluble discovered vitamin. As it is effective in neural activity and muscle tonus in different body activities, including hematopoiesis, metabolism of carbohydrates, activities of the central nervous system and neuromuscular system, etc., it can be effective in this dysmenorrhea that is a disorder resulting from uterine muscular contraction. There are no enough studies and research on the effect of vitamin B1 on the symptoms of PMS, therefore, this study was conducted to determine the effect of vitamin B1 on the symptoms of PMS in students residing at dormitories of Jahrom University of Medical Sciences in 2013.

Methods:

In this double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial, 80 students with PMS residing at dormitories of Jahrom University of Medical Sciences were divided randomly into two groups, vitamin B1 and placebo. The severity of the symptoms of PMS in two cycles, before the intervention and during the intervention, was recorded by the students. The data were collected using an information collection form, PMS provisional diagnosis form, daily status record form, Beck Depression Inventory. The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics.

Results:

There was no significant difference among the studied variables in terms of confounding variables. The comparison of vitamin B1 group before the intervention with that after the intervention showed that vitamin B1 reduced mean mental (35.08%) and physical (21.2%) symptoms significantly (P < 0.0001). Moreover, there was a significant difference between vitamin B1 and placebo groups in terms of mean mental and physical symptoms, as mean symptoms in vitamin B1 group was significantly lower than that in the placebo group (P < 0.0001).

Conclusion:

It seems that vitamin B1 is effective in recovery of mental and physical symptoms of PMS. Therefore, this vitamin can be used to reach a major goal of midwifery, that is, reduction of symptom severity of PMS, without any side effects.

Treatment of premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is comprised of a cluster of affective, behavioral and somatic symptoms recurring monthly during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. The disorder affects 3-8% of menstruating women and represents the more severe and disabling end of the spectrum of premenstrual disorders, which includes premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual aggravation of underlying affective disorder. Rigorous and specific diagnostic criteria for PMDD were specified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV (1994) and reaffirmed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders V (2013) and, consequently, there has been a marked increase in well-designed, placebo-controlled studies evaluating treatment modalities. Although the exact pathogenesis of PMDD is still elusive, treatment of PMDD and severe premenstrual syndrome has centered on neuromodulation via serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants, and ovulation suppression utilizing various contraceptive and hormonal preparations. Unlike the approach to the treatment of depression, serotonergic antidepressants need not be given daily, but can be effective when used cyclically, only in the luteal phase or even limited to the duration of the monthly symptoms. Less, well-substantiated alternative treatments, such as calcium supplementation, agnus castus (chasteberry), Hypericum perforatum (St John's wort) and cognitive/behavioral/relaxation therapies, may be useful adjuncts in the treatment of PMDD. This review provides an overview of current information on the treatment of PMDD.

Survey of premenstrual symptom severity and impairment in Korean adolescents: premenstrual dysphoric disorder, subthreshold premenstrual dysphoric disorder and premenstrual syndrome

INTRODUCTION

The aims of the study were to examine the prevalence of premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), subthreshold PMDD and premenstrual syndrome (PMS) among adolescents, and to assess the nature of symptoms and the impact on daily life functions, especially for PMDD and subthreshold PMDD.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted among adolescents from an urban area. Participants included 984 girls divided into the following four groups, using a premenstrual symptoms screening tool: PMDD, subthreshold PMDD, moderate/severe PMS and no/mild PMS. An Adolescent Mental Problem Questionnaire, Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale, revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale, and a menstrual information questionnaire were also used.

RESULTS

Sixty-three (6.76%) of the subjects met the criteria for PMDD and 58 (6.2%) were subthreshold PMDD. The subthreshold PMDD group included 79.3% who met the symptom criteria for PMDD, but their impairment was moderate, and 21.7% who were falling short by the number of symptoms for PMDD diagnosis, though reporting severe impairment. The symptom intensity and frequency of the subthreshold PMDD subjects were similar to those in subjects with PMDD. In these two groups, 69% had moderate to severe physical symptoms. Psychiatric problems, including depression and anxiety, were higher in the PMDD and subthreshold PMDD groups than in the moderate/severe PMS and no/mild PMS group.

DISCUSSION

In total, 20% of adolescents reported suffering from distressing premenstrual symptoms, and girls with PMDD and subthreshold PMDD were very similar in their symptom severity and characteristics. Prospective daily charting is needed to confirm the accurate diagnosis and management of PMDD.

Depression and cardiovascular disease in women: is there a common immunological basis? A theoretical synthesis

Clinical studies have established an inherent comorbidity between depression and the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Furthermore, this comorbidity seems to be more amplified in women than in men. To further investigate this comorbidity, a thorough literature review was conducted on studies from 1992 to date. The PubMed database was accessed using the keywords: cardiovascular disease, inflammation, depression, and sex differences. Both human and animal studies were considered. This review takes the standpoint that depression and CVD are both inflammatory disorders, and that their co-occurrence may be related to how the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, serotonergic transmission and circulation, and the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system via angiotensin II are affected by the excess secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. More recently, preliminary research attributes this systemic inflammation to a global deficiency in CD4+CD25+FOXP3 regulatory T cells. 17-β estradiol and progesterone mediated modulation of cytokine secretion may partially explain the sex differences observed. These hormones and reproductive events associated with hormonal fluctuations are discussed in depth, including the analysis of perinatal models of depression and CVD, including preeclampsia. However, as evidenced by this review, there is a need for mechanistic research in humans to truly understand the nature and directionality of the relationship between depression and CVD.

Ways of coping with premenstrual change: development and validation of a premenstrual coping measure

BACKGROUND

Negative premenstrual change can result in distress for a significant proportion of women. Previous research has suggested that women employ a range of coping strategies and behaviours in order to manage and reduce premenstrual distress. However, as yet there has been no specific scale available to measure premenstrual coping. This research aimed to develop and validate a measure of premenstrual coping which can be used in future investigations of negative premenstrual experience.

METHODS

A sample of 250 women living in Australia, reporting mild to severe premenstrual distress, completed an online survey containing 64 items related to premenstrual coping. The items were generated by reviewing past literature related to premenstrual experience, in particular recent qualitative research on premenstrual coping. A principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation was conducted to determine item clusters that would form a measure. Reliability and validity were tested using calculations of Cronbach alphas, correlational analysis with psychological coping scales and a content analysis of participant reports of coping strategies.

RESULTS

The factor analysis, which involved two principal component analyses, resulted in five factors containing 32 premenstrual coping behaviours. Interpretation of the factor solution drew on empirical and theoretical accounts of premenstrual coping and the emergent factors were labelled Avoiding Harm, Awareness and Acceptance of Premenstrual Change, Adjusting Energy, Self-Care, and Communicating. These factors form the subscales of the Premenstrual Coping Measure (PMCM). The subscales demonstrated acceptable to very good reliability and tests of construct, concurrent and content validity were supportive of sound validity.

CONCLUSIONS

The PMCM provides a valid and reliable scale for quantifying ways of coping specific to negative premenstrual change. Conceptual similarity was found between some coping behaviours and behaviours positioned as symptoms of premenstrual change. Explanations for this overlap may be found in cultural discourses associated with idealised femininity and PMS (premenstrual syndrome). Further psychometric investigation of the PMCM will enhance knowledge of the role of coping with negative premenstrual experience.

Beta-adrenergic receptor mechanisms and pain sensitivity in women with menstrually related mood disorders

Somatic symptoms experienced by women with a menstrually related mood disorder (MRMD) during their premenstrual luteal phase contribute to functional impairment. Yet, investigations on pathophysiological mechanisms contributing to heightened pain sensitivity in MRMD are sparse. During the luteal phase, 61 women with an MRMD and 61 non-MRMD controls were evaluated for β-adrenergic receptor (β-AR) responsivity using the isoproterenol sensitivity test. A subset (43 MRMD and 50 non-MRMD) then entered a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover protocol to examine the effect of β-AR blockade with intravenous propranolol on sensitivity to experimental (cold pressor and ischemic) and clinical (McGill Pain Questionnaire score) pain. Women with an MRMD exhibited greater β1- and β2-AR responsivity, ischemic pain intensity, and affective clinical pain ratings than controls. Propranolol increased cold pressor pain tolerance in both groups, but it decreased cold pain intensity and ischemic pain unpleasantness ratings only in non-MRMD women. In contrast, propranolol decreased affective ratings of clinical pain in women with MRMD. Exploratory analyses indicated that only in MRMD women did greater β-AR responsivity predict greater sensitivity to cold pressor and ischemic pain. This study provides the first evidence for a role of β-AR mechanisms in the hyperalgesia and clinical pain experienced by women with MRMDs.

PERSPECTIVE

This article describes the effects of β-adrenergic receptor stimulation and blockade on experimental and clinical pain sensitivity in women with an MRMD. The results of this study may have implications for the management of the substantial somatic premenstrual symptomatology experienced by women with an MRMD.

Luteal phase and symptom-onset dosing of SSRIs/SNRIs in the treatment of premenstrual dysphoria: clinical evidence and rationale

Premenstrual dysphoria (PMD) affects 3-8 % of women in their reproductive years worldwide. This paper summarizes the studies establishing the efficacy of continuous, luteal phase, and symptom-onset dosing of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and dual serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) in treating women with PMD. The evidence indicates that for some women, symptom-onset dosing with escitalopram, fluoxetine, and paroxetine controlled release (CR) is as effective as continuous or luteal phase dosing. The wide range of clinical efficacy of SSRIs/SNRIs suggests that they exert their therapeutic effect through multiple pathways. This paper offers a few alternative mechanisms of action to explain the rapid response to SSRIs/SNRIs in women with PMD.

Circulating insulin and leptin in women with and without premenstrual disphoric disorder in the menstrual cycle

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is a syndrome related with mood and appetite changes during the late luteal phase. Leptin and insulin are the hormones related to appetite, and leptin may have a role in reproductive functions and mood. Our aim was to determine whether there are differences in serum leptin and insulin levels between women with and without PMDD during the follicular and luteal phases. In this study, 20 women with PMDD and 18 women without PMDD were included. Fasting blood glucose, insulin, leptin, progesterone levels and HOMA-IR were measured in the follicular and luteal phases separately. Repeated-measures analysis of variance revealed significant interactions for serum leptin, insulin and HOMA-IR levels between the diagnosis of PMDD and menstrual phases (F = 5.4, p = 0.025; F = 5.4, p = 0.026; and F = 4.7, p = 0.036, respectively). A significant correlation was found between progesterone and insulin levels in subjects without PMDD in the luteal phase (r = 0.58, p = 0.01). Whether the alterations in serum leptin and insulin are related with the changes of appetite and mood in PMDD or secondary to other factors should be clarified.

Serotonin and Female Psychopathology

There are sex differences in the prevalence and presentation of many psychiatric disorders. Various trends in symptomatology have emerged that are thought to be linked to periods of hormonal fluctuations such as with menses, pregnancy or menopause. With data from animal and human studies, it has become clear that there is an important interplay between the serotonergic system and gonadal hormones. The majority of the research to date has focused on the influence that estrogen has within the CNS and, in particular, how it leads to an overall increase in serotonin synthesis and availability. In reviewing this female-specific topic we hope to raise awareness to sex/gender differences in psychopathology, help identify at-risk populations and consider development of new treatment options. Future research will also need to consider the influence that progesterone and oxytocin may have on sex-specific psychopathology as well as incorporate neuroimaging and consider the influence of hormones on the serotonergic system at a genetic level.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor plasma variation during the different phases of the menstrual cycle in women with premenstrual syndrome

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is characterized by a cluster of psychological and somatic symptoms that begin during the late luteal phase of the menstrual cycle and disappear after the onset of menses. Since PMS might be caused by an alteration in the cyclical hormonal modifications and ovarian steroids are directly involved in the regulation of mood, affective and cognitive functions and influence neurotrophins expression, in particular the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), we aimed to evaluate whether plasma BDNF levels in women with PMS differ from those of normally menstruating women without PMS. Sixty-two women were divided into two groups: one group of women (n=35) with PMS and one group (n=27) composed by normally menstruating women. Plasma samples were collected at day 7 (follicular phase) and day 21 (luteal phase) of the menstrual cycle. Plasma BDNF of the control group significantly increased (p<0.001) from the follicular phase (402.90±74.41pg/ml) to the luteal phase (1098.79±146.49pg/ml). On the other hand, in the PMS group plasma BDNF levels significantly decreased (p<0.001) from the follicular phase (412.45±78.35pg/ml) to the luteal phase (233.03±75.46pg/ml) Luteal BDNF levels of the PMS women were significantly lower than those of the control group (p<0.001). In women with PMS, plasma BDNF followed a decreasing trend during the ovarian cycle, in opposition to the increasing trend observed in women without PMS. The lower luteal BDNF levels of the PMS women might be a consequence of an altered hormonal response and might play a role in the onset of the symptoms PMS related.

Approach to premenstrual dysphoria for the mental health practitioner

As many as 7% of women experience significant social or occupational dysfunction as a result of severe premenstrual mood disturbance. Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors are implicated in the cause of premenstrual dysphoric disorder, but the interaction between these factors remains to be elucidated. Mental health practitioners can aid women by providing diagnostic clarity and by initiating an integrated step-wise management approach.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of treatments for premenstrual dysphoric disorder

BACKGROUND

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is reported to affect between 13% and 31% of women. Between 3% and 8% of women are reported to meet criteria for the more severe form of PMS, premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). Although PMDD has received increased attention in recent years, the cost effectiveness of treatments for PMDD remains unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the cost effectiveness of the four medications with a US FDA-approved indication for PMDD: fluoxetine, sertraline, paroxetine and drospirenone plus ethinyl estradiol (DRSP/EE).

METHODS

A decision-analytic model was used to evaluate both direct costs (medication and physician visits) and clinical outcomes (treatment success, failure and discontinuation). Medication costs were based on average wholesale prices of branded products; physician visit costs were obtained from a claims database study of PMDD patients and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Clinical outcome probabilities were derived from published clinical trials in PMDD. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) was calculated using the difference in costs and percentage of successfully treated patients at 6 months. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were used to assess the impact of uncertainty in parameter estimates. Threshold values where a change in the cost-effective strategy occurred were identified using a net benefit framework.

RESULTS

Starting therapy with DRSP/EE dominated both sertraline and paroxetine, but not fluoxetine. The estimated ICER of initiating treatment with fluoxetine relative to DRSP/EE was $US4385 per treatment success (year 2007 values). Cost-effectiveness acceptability curves revealed that for ceiling ratios>or=$US3450 per treatment success, fluoxetine had the highest probability (>or=0.37) of being the most cost-effective treatment, relative to the other options. The cost-effectiveness acceptability frontier further indicated that DRSP/EE remained the option with the highest expected net monetary benefit for ceiling values <or=$US3900 per treatment success.

CONCLUSION

These analyses suggest that initiating therapy with DRSP/EE may be a cost-effective option in the treatment of PMDD.

Understanding and treating premenstrual dysphoric disorder: an update for the women's health practitioner

Up to 7% of women report premenstrual symptoms severe enough to impair daily function, and are said to suffer from premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). Although PMDD is predominately regarded as a biologically based condition, sociocultural factors, and particularly life stress, past sexual abuse, and cultural socialization, likely interact with hormonal changes. This integrative model has implications for etiology and treatment of PMDD.

Evaluation of different add-back estradiol and progesterone treatments to gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist treatment in patients with premenstrual dysphoric disorder

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate which add-back hormone replacement therapy would be most beneficial in terms of mood effects for patients with premenstrual dysphoric disorder who are receiving gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist therapy.

STUDY DESIGN

Three different add-back hormone replacement treatments were evaluated in a randomized, double-blinded, cross-over clinical trial in 27 patients premenstrual dysphoric disorder. The add-back treatments consisted of 1.5 mg estradiol and 400 mg progesterone, 1.5 mg estradiol and placebo, and 0.5 mg estradiol and 400 mg progesterone. The primary outcome measure was daily symptom ratings for mood and physical symptoms.

RESULTS

The highest dose of estradiol in combination with progesterone was associated with the most pronounced symptom recurrence, both in comparison with a lower dose of estradiol together with progesterone and estradiol-only treatment.

CONCLUSION

Based on the findings of the present study, long-cycle add-back treatment to avoid frequent progestagen use appears to be most beneficial for patients with premenstrual dysphoric disorder.