Perceived Ineffectiveness of Pharmacological Treatments for Dysmenorrhea

Association Between Sedentary Behavior and Primary Dysmenorrhea in Young Korean Women: A Cross-Sectional Online Survey

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Sedentary behavior is an independent risk factor for various health conditions, but its association with dysmenorrhea has been little investigated. This study aimed to examine whether sedentary behavior is independently associated with primary dysmenorrhea in young women, controlling for moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and other known risk factors.

METHODS

An online survey was conducted in 603 young women in South Korea in 2023. Menstrual pain intensity was measured using a numeric rating scale, and symptoms were assessed with the Cox Menstrual Symptom Scale. Sedentary behavior and physical activity were assessed using the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire. Known risk factors for dysmenorrhea included menstrual and lifestyle characteristics, sleep quality, and stress.

RESULTS

Longer sedentary time (hours/day) was correlated with more frequent (r = 0.144; p < 0.001) and severe (r = 0.123; p < 0.01) menstrual symptoms but not with pain intensity. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that sedentary time was independently associated with the frequency (β = 0.10; p < 0.01) and severity (β = 0.09; p < 0.05) of menstrual symptoms after adjusting for physical activity and other risk factors for dysmenorrhea. Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that women with higher levels of sedentary time had 1.05 times greater odds (95% CI, 1.00-1.10; p < 0.05) of experiencing severe pain compared to those with less sedentary time, even after adjusting for physical activity and other risk factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Prolonged sedentary behavior in young women is associated with more frequent and severe menstrual symptoms, including more intense menstrual pain. These findings highlight the need for public health strategies that reduce sedentary behavior to alleviate dysmenorrhea.

A mixed method study of menstrual health in Spain: pain, disorders, and the journey for health

Introduction

Menstrual-related symptoms and disorders, particularly dysmenorrhea, significantly impact women's well-being. Dysmenorrhea, marked by painful menstrual cramps, affects up to 95% of women, leading to debilitating symptoms that interfere with daily activities and potentially signal underlying gynecological issues. Despite its prevalence, many women experience inadequate medical support and dismissive healthcare responses.

Methods

This study employed a mixed-method approach, combining quantitative and qualitative survey data to explore Spanish women's experiences with menstrual discomforts and healthcare access. A total of 3,490 participants responded to the survey, which assessed the prevalence of menstrual discomforts, frequency of medical consultations, and perceived quality of gynecological care.

Results

Findings indicate that 70.9% of participants experience menstrual discomforts monthly or most months; despite this, a significant number of women infrequently seek gynecological care, often due to perceived dismissiveness and inadequate medical support. The qualitative analysis reflects shared experiences of pain normalization, misattribution to other conditions, and dissatisfaction with the standard treatment of contraceptive pills without thorough diagnostics. Additionally, the study reveals that in Spain, access to healthcare support for menstrual issues is highly influenced by whether the provider is public or private, demonstrating the impact of socio-economic factors and underscoring a core contributor to health inequity.

Discussion

This study highlights the persistent gender pain gap and the need for a more holistic and empathetic approach in medical practices. The authors' recommendations include incorporating gender training for healthcare professionals and promoting awareness campaigns to encourage medical consultations for menstrual pain. This research aims to improve support systems and healthcare practices, enhancing the quality of life for women in Spain.

The effect of computer-based Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) approach on the pelvic pain, depression, and anxiety in students with primary dysmenorrhea: a clinical trial study

BACKGROUND

Primary dysmenorrhea (PD) is one of the most common pains experienced by women. Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) is a cognitive-behavioral technique that immunizes them against future periods of stress. The purpose of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of a computer-based stress inoculation approach on pelvic pain, depression, and anxiety symptoms in students with PD.

METHODS

The present study is a clinical trial conducted on 100 students with PD. The SIT intervention consisted of eight consecutive sessions. The content of the sessions was created as multimedia on a computer platform of a site. In each session, several interactive questions were asked about the topics of that session, and participants answered them, with responses recorded in the system. Then, each individual session, lasting about 50 min, was sent as a link (offline) to a participant. Data collection tools included the demographics Checklist, McGill Pain Questionnaire (MPQ), Moos Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MMDQ), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), Pain Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (PSEQ), and Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-14), which were completed on the second menstrual day of the cycle before the study and for three consecutive cycles after the intervention by each student. The data were analyzed using chi-square, generalized linear mixed models (GLMM), and multiple linear regression tests. The significance level was set at P < 0.05.

RESULTS

The results of the GLMM test showed that the SIT intervention decreased depression (p = 0.002), anxiety (p = 0.001), menstrual distress (p = 0.001), pain intensity (p = 0.003), and perceived stress (p = 0.002), while it increased pain self-efficacy (p = 0.001). Based on multiple linear regression analysis, the main predictors of depression were the student's age and residence in a dormitory (β=-0.255, p = 0.047 and β=-0.376, p = 0.005, respectively). The factors influencing pain self-efficacy were birth rank and the type of university admission (β=-0.351, p = 0.027 and β=-0.249, p = 0.030, respectively). In the presence of confounding variables, increasing age and living in a dormitory were risk factors that increased depression, while studying with tuition fees and a higher birth rank were associated with decreased self-efficacy.

CONCLUSION

The computer-based SIT was effective in reducing pelvic pain, and psychological factors, and in increasing pain self-efficacy in students with primary dysmenorrhea. Therefore, it can be used as a useful solution to manage complications associated with primary dysmenorrhea.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

IRCT20230130057274N5 Date of registration: 2024-04-29 Retrospectively registered.

Direct and Indirect Effects of Stress and Self-Esteem on Primary Dysmenorrhea in Korean Adolescent Girls: A Cross-Sectional Survey Study

Background

Positive and negative emotions have recently revealed a link with primary dysmenorrhea in adults. Among them, roles of stress and self-esteem have been less studied specially in adolescents and the direction of causality has not been clearly established. Therefore, this study investigated whether stress and self-esteem independently affect primary dysmenorrhea after adjustment for the known risk factors in adolescents. Additionally, indirect effects of stress and self-esteem were determined using mediation analyses.

Methods

This survey was conducted in adolescent girls aged 15-18 yr in metropolitan regions in South Korea in 2021. The survey included general, menstrual, and lifestyle characteristics, menstrual pain and symptom, perceived stress, self-esteem, depression, and state-trait anxiety.

Results

Stress, depression, and anxiety were associated positively with menstrual pain and symptom (all P<0.001) in adolescent girls (n=519). Self-esteem was also associated inversely with negative emotions and dysmenorrhea (all P<0.001). Additionally, stress independently affected frequency and severity of menstrual symptom (both P<0.05), but not pain intensity after adjustment for covariates. Stress also had indirect effect through depression and anxiety on menstrual pain and symptom. Effect of self-esteem vanished after adjustment for covariates, but indirectly reduced menstrual pain and symptom through mediations of stress, depression, and anxiety.

Conclusion

Mental health such as stress and self-esteem are important for managing menstrual pain and symptom in adolescents. It should be considered in managing dysmenorrhea.

Dysmenorrhea and Sleep: A Review

This review encompasses the clinical features and relevance to investigate sleep in women with dysmenorrhea. Dysmenorrhea is a prevalent gynecologic dysfunction that affects the social and professional lives of women. It can occur at every menstrual cycle, depending on the cause and psychologic factors. Studies have reported poor sleep and insomnia symptoms in dysmenorrhea condition, which may intensify the dysmenorrhea manifestation and interfere negatively to its treatment. There is an urgent need to identify the main cause of this dysfunction and provide efficient treatments to minimize the detrimental effects of dysmenorrhea in quality of life of these women.

Dysmenorrhea and psychological distress: a meta-analysis

Dysmenorrhea is characterized by pelvic pain associated with menstruation. Similar to people with other pain conditions, females who experience dysmenorrhea report increased psychological distress. However, the pooled magnitude of this association has not been quantified across studies. Accordingly, this meta-analytic review quantifies the magnitude of the associations between dysmenorrhea severity and psychological distress. We conducted a systematic search of the literature using PsycINFO, PubMed, CINHAL, Embase, and Web of Science. Analyzed studies provided observational data on dysmenorrhea severity and anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, and/or global psychological distress. A total of 44 studies were included, and three random-effects meta-analyses were conducted, with average pooled effect sizes calculated using Person's r. We found significant, positive associations between measures of dysmenorrhea severity and measures of depressive symptoms (r = 0.216), anxiety symptoms (r = 0.207), and global psychological distress (r = 0.311). Our review suggests that females with greater dysmenorrhea severity experience greater psychological distress. Future directions include defining a clinically meaningful dysmenorrhea severity threshold, understanding the mechanisms and directionality underlying the dysmenorrhea-psychological distress relationship, and designing and testing interventions to jointly address dysmenorrhea and psychological distress.

The Effect of Exercise on Pulsatility Index of Uterine Arteries and Pain in Primary Dysmenorrhea

BACKGROUND

Primary dysmenorrhea (PD) is one of the most common diseases in women of reproductive age. Our aim was to examine whether a twice-weekly thirty-minute exercise intervention could result in a difference in the pulsatility index (PI) of the uterine arteries (UAs) and level of menstrual pain in patients with PD.

METHODS

In our prospective observational trial, the observation period included one spontaneous menstrual cycle and the consecutive time of the next menstruation of all participants, aged 18-44, with no extensive sports experience. In total, 73 volunteers were enrolled: 38 persons in the intervention group (IG) and 35 in the control group (CG). The intervention program was accompanied by music, performed in groups under the supervision of a qualified instructor in Hungary. The primary outcome was the difference between the IG and CG regarding the PI values of UAs at the 1st and the 2nd ultrasound (US) Doppler flowmetry. The secondary outcome was the difference between the IG and CG regarding the PI of UAs and menstrual pain measured by using the Numeric Rating Scale and adherence to the intervention. Statistical tests such as an independent-samples t-test, chi-square test, Mann-Whitney test and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) were used during the analyses.

RESULTS

Examining the mean of the PI of UAs in the IG and the CG at the 1st and the 2nd US measurement, a significant difference was found in the change in the measured value (Z = -2.545; p = 0.011). The IG showed a significantly higher increase in the mean of the PI of UAs (Median = 0.825) than the CG (Median = 0.130). The difference in the PI of the UAs of the IG and the CG is not related to the level of pain in any group (p = 0.336) and not related to the whole sample (p = 0.354); furthermore, the level of pain did not significantly differ between the two groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study is the first to document the significant effects of mild-to-moderate exercise training on the change in the PI of the UAs in individuals with PD. The IG had a reduced blood flow due to circulatory redistribution after exercise. The level of menstrual pain of primary dysmenorrhea patients is independent of the level of blood circulation regarding the PI of the UAs. Randomized controlled studies with more participants and a longer research period are needed to confirm our findings regarding the association between regular exercise and the PI of UAs. The study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov: NCT04618172.

Clinical Observation on Auricular Acupressure for Primary Dysmenorrhea: A Study Protocol for a Randomized Clinical Trial

Purpose

The objective of this study is to evaluate the immediate and time-dependent effects of AA in treating PD and assess its safety.

Methods/Design

This study is a randomized, single-blinded, controlled trial that will enroll 92 patients in a 1:1 allocation ratio. Patients will be assigned to either the treatment group (n=46) or the control group (n=46). During the first menstrual period, the treatment group will receive AA treatment, while the control group will receive sham AA treatment for 7 days. The second menstrual period will serve as the follow-up period. The primary outcome measure is the Visual Analog Scale (VAS) score 30 min after the first treatment. Secondary outcome measures include the VAS score immediately after the first treatment, onset time of analgesic effect, duration of pain, extra dosing rate of ibuprofen, and change of the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MDQ) score. The outcomes will be assessed at baseline, during the intervention period, and during the follow-up period.

Conclusion

The study results will provide evidence on the efficacy and safety of AA in managing PD by analyzing its immediate effect, time-effect relationship, and reduction of painkiller use.

Trial Registration

Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR2300069741).

Efficacy of psychological interventions for dysmenorrhea: a meta-analysis

Dysmenorrhea is pelvic pain associated with menstruation and is one of the most common pain conditions among reproductive-age women. It is commonly treated with medications, complementary and alternative medicine, and self-management techniques. However, there is increased focus on psychological interventions which modify thoughts, beliefs, emotions, and behavioral responses to dysmenorrhea. This review examined the efficacy of psychological interventions on dysmenorrhea pain severity and interference. We conducted a systematic search of the literature using PsycINFO, PubMed, CINHAL, and Embase. A total of 22 studies were included; 21 examined within-group improvement (ie, within-group analysis) and 14 examined between-group improvement (ie, between-group analysis). Random-effects meta-analyses were conducted on pain severity and interference, with average effect sizes calculated using Hedges's g. Within-group analyses showed decreased pain severity and interference at post-treatment (g = 0.986 and 0.949, respectively) and first follow-up (g = 1.239 and 0.842, respectively). Between-group analyses showed decreased pain severity at post-treatment (g = 0.909) and decreased pain severity and interference at first follow-up (g = 0.964 and 0.884, respectively) compared to control groups. This review supports the efficacy of psychological interventions for dysmenorrhea, but conclusions are tempered by suboptimal methodological quality of the included studies and high heterogeneity across studies. Additional, rigorous research is needed to determine the clinical utility of psychological interventions for dysmenorrhea.

Experiences of dysmenorrhea and its treatment among allistic and autistic menstruators: a thematic analysis

BACKGROUND

Dysmenorrhea (i.e., period pain) is common and debilitating. Autistic people are known to experience pain differently, yet little is known about the menstrual pain experiences of autistic menstruators relative to non-autistic peers. This study aimed to explore the experience of period pain and treatment uptake for period pain among allistic and autistic populations.

METHODS

This study used a qualitative design and opportunity sampling approach. Thirty-seven participants (of whom 17 were autistic) were interviewed via video-conferencing software using a semi-structured topic guide. Transcriptions of interviews were analysed using Braun and Clarke's Reflexive Thematic Analysis. Data were initially analysed together for common themes. Autistic menstruators' data was subsequently analysed separately to elucidate the unique experiences of this group.

RESULTS

A total of six themes were constructed from the data. Initial analysis determined three themes related to experiences of period pain and treatment uptake in both allistic and autistic menstruators. Social perception of menstruation was discussed, highlighting the normalisation of pain, the taboo nature, and gendered experience of menstruation, contributing to untreated menstrual pain. Issues within menstrual healthcare were also shared, including experiences of ineffective treatment, dismissive interactions, and insufficient menstrual education. Impaired functionality was repeatedly highlighted, with menstruators detailing significant limitations to their usual functioning due to menstrual pain and ineffective treatment. Three further themes were constructed from separate analysis of data from autistic menstruators. Autistic menstruators discussed the impact of menstruation on their sensory experiences and needs, with many identifying overstimulation during menstruation. Social exclusion was discussed as a factor contributing to the experience of menstrual pain and poor treatment uptake. The final theme identified pain communication differences between autistic and allistic menstruators resulting in reports of ineffective treatment and challenges in healthcare interactions.

CONCLUSIONS

Communication differences, sensory aspects, and social factors contributed to the experience of period pain and treatment uptake for autistic menstruators. The perception of menstruation within society was highlighted by allistic and autistic menstruators as influential to their pain experience and engagement with treatment. Functionality was significantly impacted by pain for this sample. The study highlights societal and healthcare factors that could be improved to ensure accessibility of support and treatment for menstrual issues.

Nonsurgical management of adenomyosis: an overview of current evidence

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Adenomyosis is a condition where endometrium-like tissue spreads within the myometrium. Although its prevalence in the general population is not exactly known, its clinical manifestations are well established and include pelvic pain, dysmenorrhea (painful periods), heavy menstrual bleeding and subfertility [1] . Adenomyosis often coexists with other gynaecological conditions, such as endometriosis or fibroids, and may cloud the clinical presentation [2] . The aim of this article is to review current noninterventional, nonsurgical management modalities and wherever possible offer information that allows women to make safe and informed choices regarding their treatment options.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent studies support that medical strategies, including the Mirena coil, Dienogest and GnRH antagonists, are efficient in improving adenomyosis-associated symptoms. High-quality evidence is scarce and is needed to properly counsel women with this condition. Future research should prioritize overall pain, menstrual bleeding, quality of life and live birth as primary outcomes and assess women with different grades of adenomyosis.

SUMMARY

This review provides the most current evidence with regards to the nonsurgical management of adenomyosis. In light of the paucity and low quality of existing data, high-quality trials are needed to definitely determine the impact of conservative and medical treatment on the clinical management of adenomyosis.

Primary Dysmenorrhea: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment Updates

Primary dysmenorrhea (PD) is a common, disregarded, underdiagnosed, and inadequately treated complaint of both young and adult females. It is characterized by painful cramps in the lower abdomen, which start shortly before or at the onset of menses and which could last for 3 days. In particular, PD negatively impacts the quality of life (QOL) of young females and is the main reason behind their absenteeism from school or work. It is suggested that increased intrauterine secretion of prostaglandins F2α and E2 are responsible for the pelvic pain associated with this disorder. Its associated symptoms are physical and/or psychological. Its physical symptoms include headache, lethargy, sleep disturbances, tender breasts, various body pains, disturbed appetite, nausea, vomiting, constipation or diarrhea, and increased urination, whereas its psychological symptoms include mood disturbances, such as anxiety, depression, and irritability. While its diagnosis is based on patients’ history, symptoms, and physical examination, its treatment aims to improve the QOL through the administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, hormonal contraceptives, and/or the use of non-pharmacological aids (e.g., topical heat application and exercise). Patients must be monitored to measure their response to treatment, assess their adherence, observe potential side effects, and perform further investigations, if needed.

Associations Between Dysmenorrhea Symptom-Based Phenotypes and Vaginal Microbiome: A Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

Dysmenorrhea is highly prevalent; it places women at risk for other chronic pain conditions. There is a high degree of individual variability in menstrual pain severity, the number of painful sites, and co-occurring gastrointestinal symptoms. Distinct dysmenorrhea symptom-based phenotypes were previously identified, but the biological underpinnings of these phenotypes are less known. One underexplored contributor is the vaginal microbiome. The vaginal microbiota differs significantly among reproductive-age women and may modulate as well as amplify reproductive tract inflammation, which may contribute to dysmenorrhea symptoms.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to examine associations between dysmenorrhea symptom-based phenotypes and vaginal microbiome compositions on- and off-menses.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective, longitudinal, pilot study of 20 women (aged 15-24 years) grouped into three dysmenorrhea symptom-based phenotypes: "mild localized pain," "severe localized pain," and "severe multiple pain and gastrointestinal symptoms." Over one menstrual cycle, participants provided vaginal swabs when they were on- and off-menses. We assayed the vaginal microbiome using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Permutational multivariate analysis of variance tests were used to compare microbiome compositions across phenotypes, with heat maps generated to visualize the relative abundance of bacterial taxa.

RESULTS

The vaginal microbiome compositions (n = 40) were different across the three phenotypes. After separating the on-menses (n = 20) and off-menses (n = 20) specimens, the statistically significant difference was seen on-menses, but not off-menses. Compared to the "mild localized pain" phenotype, participants in the "multiple severe symptoms" phenotype had a lower lactobacilli level and a higher abundance of Prevotella, Atopobium, and Gardnerella when on-menses. We also observed trends of differences across phenotypes in vaginal microbiome change from off- to on-menses.

DISCUSSION

The study provides proof-of-concept data to support larger studies on associations between dysmenorrhea symptom-based phenotypes and vaginal microbiome that might lead to new intervention targets and/or biomarkers for dysmenorrhea. This line of research has the potential to inform precision dysmenorrhea treatment that can improve women's quality of life.

Menstrual Health Literacy and Management Strategies in Young Women in Australia: A National Online Survey of Young Women Aged 13-25 Years

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To explore key aspects of menstrual health literacy and menstrual management in young women at school or in tertiary education.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional online survey.

SETTING

Australia-wide.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 4202 adolescent and young women (13-25 years of age; median age 17 years), having reached menarche, living in Australia and currently attending school (n = 2421) or tertiary education (n = 1781).

INTERVENTIONS

Online survey hosted by Qualtrics between November 2017 and January 2018. Data were collected on contraceptive use, management strategies, sources of information, and knowledge of menstruation.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Information on prevalence and effectiveness of different management strategies, health-seeking behavior, knowledge about menstruation, and common menstrual disorders such as endometriosis.

RESULTS

The majority of young women did not seek medical advice for their menstrual symptoms, but used information from the Internet (50%) and engaged in self-management, most commonly with over-the-counter medications such as paracetamol (51%) or ibuprofen (52%). Oral contraceptive use was relatively common (35%), and mostly for reduction of menstrual pain (58%). Despite having significant dysmenorrhea, approximately one-half of the participants (51%) thought that their period was normal. Women with higher pain scores were more likely to rate their period as "abnormal" (P < .0001) but not more likely to consult a doctor (P = .13). Only 53% of those at school had heard of endometriosis.

CONCLUSION

Self-management of menstrual symptoms is common, but a significant minority of women are underdosing or choosing ineffective methods. Most women do not seek medical advice even when symptoms are severe, and cannot identify symptoms suggestive of secondary dysmenorrhea. Improved education on menstruation is vital.

Hormonal Contraceptive Treatment May Reduce the Risk of Fibromyalgia in Women with Dysmenorrhea: A Cohort Study

Dysmenorrhea is the most common gynecological disorder for women in the reproductive age. Study has indicated that dysmenorrhea might be a general risk factor of chronic pelvic pain and even chronic non-pelvic pain, such as fibromyalgia. We used the Longitudinal Health Insurance Database 2000 from the Taiwan National Health Research Institutes Database to investigate whether women with dysmenorrhea have a higher risk of fibromyalgia and whether treatment of dysmenorrhea reduced the risk of fibromyalgia. The dysmenorrhea cohort was matched with a non-dysmenorrhea cohort at a 1:1 ratio based on gender, age, and the year of entry study by frequency matching. Multivariable Cox proportional hazard regression models were used to assess the risk of fibromyalgia, with controlling for potential confounding variables such as age, comorbidities, and medication use. After controlling confounding variables, results revealed that women with dysmenorrhea have a significantly higher risk of fibromyalgia than women without dysmenorrhea. However, only treatment of dysmenorrhea with hormonal contraceptives reduce the risk of fibromyalgia. These results indicated that dysmenorrhea may be a risk factor of fibromyalgia, whereas personalized medicine for treatment of dysmenorrhea may be the key to reduce the risk of fibromyalgia. Future studies are needed to identify the causes and prevention strategies in detail.