Polymorphisms in VEGF and IL-8 predict tumor recurrence in stage III colon cancer

Dihydroartemisinin inhibits melanoma migration and metastasis by affecting angiogenesis

Tumor angiogenesis is critical for tumor metastasis by providing oxygen, nutrients, and metastatic pathways. As a potential anti-angiogenic agent, Dihydroartemisinin (DHA) can effectively inhibit tumor metastasis. However, the mechanism how it regulates angiogenesis to affect tumor metastasis has not been fully clarified. To investigate the mechanisms of how DHA regulates melanoma progression. In this study, bioinformatics methods were used to analyze the correlation between angiogenesis and melanoma metastasis. Then, B16F10, A375, HUVECs and mouse metastasis models were adapted to clarify the inhibition of DHA in melanoma. GESA analysis revealed melanoma metastasis significantly positive correlated with angiogenesis. Meanwhile, DHA significantly decreased melanoma nodules and lung wet weight in metastatic tumor mice, and inhibited the expression of the angiogenic marker CD31 in vitro and in vivo. Similarly, DHA inhibited the expression of the angiogenic signal molecule VEGFR2 in A375 and B16F10 cells, and significantly suppressed the formation of their tubular structures. DHA-treated supernatants significantly inhibited the tubule-forming ability as well as lateral and longitudinal migration ability of HUVECs compared with untreated melanoma cell supernatants. Screening yielded the angiogenic pathways HIF-1α/VEGF, PI3K/ATK/mTOR associated with melanoma metastasis, and DHA may inhibit tumor metastasis by inhibiting these angiogenic pathways in melanoma cells to inhibit tumor metastasis. Further non-targeted metabolomics analysis revealed that DHA-treated model mice produced differential metabolites that were also associated with angiogenic pathways. DHA inhibits melanoma invasion and metastasis by mediating angiogenesis. These results have important implications for the potential use of DHA in treatment of melanoma.

Colorectal Liver Metastasis: Can Cytokines Make the Difference?

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Metastasis is the prime driver of CRC-related mortality, and the liver is the organ most frequently involved. Despite the overall success of current treatments, colorectal liver metastasis (CRLM) is associated with poor prognoses and a survival rate of only 14%. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and the crosstalk within it in determining the invasion of distant organs by circulating cancer cells. In the TME, cellular communication is mediated via soluble molecules, among which cytokines have recently emerged as key regulators, involved in every aspect of tumor progression and the metastatic cascade. Indeed, in the serum of CRC patients elevated levels of several cytokines are associated with cancer development and progression. The current review evaluates the role of different cytokines during CRLM development. Additionally, considering the increasing amount of data concerning the importance of cytokine complex networks, we outline the potential of combination treatments using targeted cytokines together with other well-established therapies, such as immune checkpoint blockades, chemotherapy, or gene therapy, to improve therapeutic outcomes.

IL-8-mediated overexpression of ZNF274 promotes the proliferation and migration of colorectal cancer cells through the transactivation of MRPL40

Background

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most prevalent malignant tumors with high morbidity and mortality rates worldwide. ZNF274, a member of the zinc-finger-protein family of transcription factors, is critical in chromosomal remodelling and tumorigenesis. However, the role of ZNF274 in CRC and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear.

Methods

Immunohistochemical analysis was performed to quantify the expression of ZNF274 in human CRC tissues. The Kaplan‒Meier method was used to analyse the relationship between ZNF274 expression and CRC prognosis. The correlation between ZNF274 expression and clinical features was analyzed using Cox regression analysis. Cell proliferation and migration were evaluated by CCK-8, colony formation, and Transwell assays. The limma R package was used to analyse IL-8-related differentially expressed genes in the GSE30364 dataset. The DAVID method was used to screen significantly enriched pathways. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-qPCR and luciferase reporter assays were performed to determine the transcriptional regulation of MRPL40 by ZNF274.

Results

ZNF274 was overexpressed in CRC tissues and indicated poor prognosis. High ZNF274 expression was linked to larger tumor size, invasion, lymph node metastasis, and AJCC stage. Ectopic expression promoted CRC cell proliferation and migration. Mechanistically, MRPL40 was identified as the direct target gene that transactivates the expression of ZNF274. Moreover, IL-8 upregulated ZNF274 expression in a dose-dependent manner. Downregulation of either ZNF274 or MRPL40 expression abrogated the effect of IL-8 on promoting the proliferation and migration of CRC.

Conclusion

This study revealed an oncogenic role of ZNF274 and the mechanism by which ZNF274 participated in IL-8-induced promotion of CRC progression. These findings demonstrate that ZNF274 could be used as a prognostic factor and potential therapeutic target for CRC treatment.

Genetic polymorphisms in interleukin-1β (rs1143634) and interleukin-8 (rs4073) are associated with survival after resection of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma

Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCCA) is a rare, understudied primary hepatic malignancy with dismal outcomes. Aiming to identify prognostically relevant single-nucleotide polymorphisms, we analyzed 11 genetic variants with a role in tumor-promoting inflammation (VEGF, EGF, EGFR, IL-1B, IL-6, CXCL8 (IL-8), IL-10, CXCR1, HIF1A and PTGS2 (COX-2) genes) and their association with disease-free (DFS) and overall survival (OS) in patients undergoing curative-intent surgery for iCCA. Genomic DNA was isolated from 112 patients (64 female, 48 male) with iCCA. Germline polymorphisms were analyzed with polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism protocols. The IL-1B +3954 C/C (73/112, hazard ratio (HR) = 1.735, p = 0.012) and the IL-8 -251 T/A or A/A (53/112 and 16/112, HR = 2.001 and 1.1777, p = 0.026) genotypes were associated with shorter OS in univariable and multivariable analysis. The IL-1B +3954 polymorphism was also associated with shorter DFS (HR = 1.983, p = 0.012), but this effect was not sustained in the multivariable model. A genetic risk model of 0, 1 and 2 unfavorable alleles was established and confirmed in multivariable analysis. This study supports the prognostic role of the IL-1B C+3954T and the IL-8 T-251A variant as outcome markers in iCCA patients, identifying patient subgroups at higher risk for dismal clinical outcomes.

Cholecystectomy promotes colon carcinogenesis by activating the Wnt signaling pathway by increasing the deoxycholic acid level

Purpose

Cholecystectomy (XGB) is widely recognized as a risk factor for colon cancer (CC). Continuous exposure of the colonic epithelium to deoxycholic acid (DCA) post-XGB may exert cytotoxic effects and be involved in the progression of CC. However, the functions of the XGB-induced DCA increase and the underlying mechanism remain unclear.

Methods

Colitis-associated CC (CAC) mouse models constructed by AOM-DSS inducement were used to confirm the effect of XGB on the CC progression. Hematoxylin & eosin staining was performed to assess the tumor morphology of CAC mouse models tissues. Various cell biological assays including EdU, live-cell imaging, wound-healing assays, and flow cytometry for cell cycle and apoptosis were used to evaluate the effect of DCA on CC progression. The correlation among XGB, DCA, and CC and their underlying mechanisms were detected with immunohistochemistry, mass spectrometry, transcriptome sequencing, qRT-PCR, and western blotting.

Results

Here we proved that XGB increased the plasma DCA level and promoted colon carcinogenesis in a colitis-associated CC mouse model. Additionally, we revealed that DCA promoted the proliferation and migration of CC cells. Further RNA sequencing showed that 120 mRNAs were upregulated, and 118 downregulated in DCA-treated CC cells versus control cells. The upregulated mRNAs were positively correlated with Wnt signaling and cell cycle-associated pathways. Moreover, DCA treatment could reduced the expression of the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and subsequently increased the levels of β-Catenin and c-Myc in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, the FXR agonist GW4064 decreased the proliferation of CC cells by repressing the expression of β-catenin.

Conclusion

We concluded that XGB-induced DCA exposure could promote the progression of CC by inhibiting FXR expression and enhancing the Wnt-β-catenin pathway.

Prognostic and Predictive Molecular Markers in Cholangiocarcinoma

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is the second most common primary liver cancer and subsumes a heterogeneous group of malignant tumors arising from the intra- or extrahepatic biliary tract epithelium. A rising mortality from CCA has been reported worldwide during the last decade, despite significant improvement of surgical and palliative treatment. Over 50% of CCAs originate from proximal extrahepatic bile ducts and constitute the most common CCA entity in the Western world. Clinicopathological characteristics such as lymph node status and poor differentiation remain the best-studied, but imperfect prognostic factors. The identification of prognostic molecular markers as an adjunct to traditional staging systems may not only facilitate the selection of patients who would benefit the most from surgical, adjuvant or palliative treatment strategies, but may also be helpful in defining the aggressiveness of the disease and identifying patients at high-risk for tumor recurrence. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of currently known molecular prognostic and predictive markers and their role in CCA.

CRYAB predicts clinical prognosis and is associated with immunocyte infiltration in colorectal cancer

Background

αB-Crystallin (CRYAB) is differentially expressed in various tumors. However, the correlation between CRYAB and immune cell infiltration in colorectal cancer (CRC) remains unclear.

Materials & Methods

Kaplan-Meier survival curves in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) were used to evaluate the relationship between CRYAB expression and both overall survival and progression-free survival. The relationships between CRYAB expression and infiltrating immune cells and their corresponding gene marker sets were examined using the TIMER database.

Results

The expression of CRYAB was lower in CRC tumor tissues than in normal tissues (P < 0.05). High CRYAB gene expression and high levels of CRYAB gene methylation were correlated with high-grade malignant tumors and more advanced tumor, nodes and metastasis (TNM) cancer stages. In addition, in colorectal cancer, there was a positive correlation between CRYAB expression and immune infiltrating cells including neutrophils, macrophages, CD8 + T cells, and CD4 + T cells, as well as immune-related genes including CD2, CD3D, and CD3E. Methylation sites such as cg13084335, cg15545878, cg13210534, and cg15318568 were positively correlated with low expression of CRYAB.

Conclusion

Because CRYAB likely plays an important role in immune cell infiltration, it may be a potential tumor-suppressor gene in CRC and a potential novel therapeutic target and predictive biomarker for colorectal cancer (CRC).

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Its Acute Exacerbation before Colon Adenocarcinoma Treatment Are Associated with Higher Mortality: A Propensity Score-Matched, Nationwide, Population-Based Cohort Study

Simple Summary

This is the first study to reveal that hospitalization frequency for acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (AECOPD) before colon adenocarcinoma treatment is a severity-dependent and independent prognostic factor for overall survival in patients with stage I–III colon cancer receiving surgical resection and standard treatments. In patients with colon adenocarcinoma undergoing curative resection, those with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) had poorer survival outcomes than had those without COPD. Hospitalization for AECOPD at least once within 1 year before colon adenocarcinoma diagnosis is an independent risk factor for poor overall survival in these patients, and a higher number of hospitalizations for AECOPD within 1 year before diagnosis was associated with poorer survival. Our study may be applied to accentuate the importance of COPD management, particularly the identification of frequent exacerbators and the prevention of AECOPD, before standard colon adenocarcinoma treatments are initiated.

Abstract

Purpose: To investigate whether chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and COPD severity (acute exacerbation of COPD (AECOPD)) affect the survival outcomes of patients with colon adenocarcinoma receiving standard treatments. Methods: From the Taiwan Cancer Registry Database, we recruited patients with clinical stage I–III colon adenocarcinoma who had received surgery. The Cox proportional hazards model was used to analyze all-cause mortality. We categorized the patients into COPD and non-COPD (Group 1 and 2) groups through propensity score matching. Results: In total, 1512 patients were eligible for further comparative analysis between non-COPD (1008 patients) and COPD (504 patients) cohorts. In the multivariate Cox regression analysis, the adjusted hazard ratio (aHR; 95% confidence interval (CI)) for all-cause mortality for Group 1 compared with Group 2 was 1.17 (1.03, 1.29). In patients with colon adenocarcinoma undergoing curative resection, the aHRs (95% CIs) for all-cause mortality in patients with hospitalization frequencies of ≥1 and ≥2 times for AECOPD within 1 year before adenocarcinoma diagnosis were 1.08 (1.03, 1.51) and 1.55 (1.15, 2.09), respectively, compared with those without AECOPD. Conclusion: In patients with colon adenocarcinoma undergoing curative resection, COPD was associated with worse survival outcomes. Being hospitalized at least once for AECOPD within 1 year before colon adenocarcinoma diagnosis was an independent risk factor for poor overall survival in these patients, and a higher number of hospitalizations for AECOPD within 1 year before diagnosis was associated with poorer survival. Our study highlights the importance of COPD management, particularly the identification of frequent exacerbators and the prevention of AECOPD before standard colon adenocarcinoma treatments are applied.

Association between the serum concentrations and mutational status of IL-8, IL-27 and VEGF and the expression levels of the hERG potassium channel gene in patients with colorectal cancer

The present study aimed to determine the diagnostic value of the serum levels and mutational status of IL-8, IL-27 and VEGF, and the expression levels of human ether-a-go-go-related gene (hERG) in patients with colorectal cancer (CRC). The serum concentrations were determined using the ELISA technique and genotype variations of IL-8, IL-27 and VEGF were examined using Sanger sequencing, and the expression levels of hERG, which encodes a potassium channel, were determined by quantitative PCR, in blood and tissue samples obtained from 80 patients with CRC and 80 healthy individuals. The results of the present study revealed that the percentage of granulocytes and serum concentrations of carcinoembryonic antigen, IL-8 and IL-27 were significantly increased, whereas the percentage of lymphocytes was decreased in patients with CRC. In total, 31 mutations in three genes (eight mutations in VEGF, 13 mutations in IL-27 and 10 mutations in IL-8) were identified in patients with CRC. The relative mRNA expression levels of hERG were also significantly upregulated in tissue and blood samples of patients with CRC compared with those of healthy individuals. In conclusion, the results of the present study indicated that the increased concentrations and genetic variations of IL-8, IL-27 and VEGF may serve important roles in the development and angiogenic processes of CRC. These changes were concomitant with the upregulation of the expression levels of the potassium channel hERG.

IL-8/CXCR2 mediates tropism of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells toward CD133+ /CD44+ Colon cancer stem cells

In cancer treatment, the most attractive feature of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) is it's homing to tumor tissues. MSC is an important part of the "colon cancer stem cell niche", but little research has been done on the tropism of human MSCs toward colon cancer stem cells (CCSCs). In this study, we first compared the effects of three tissue-derived MSCs (bone marrow, adipose tissue, and placenta) in vivo on colon tumor xenograft growth. Then, we analyzed the tropism of bone marrow-derived MSCs (BMSCs) toward normal intestinal epithelial cells (NCM460), parental colon cancer cells, CD133- /CD44-, and CD133+ /CD44+ colon cancer cells in vitro. Microarray analysis and in vitro experiments explored the mechanism of mediating the homing of BMSCs toward CCSCs. Compared with the parental and CD133- /CD44- colon cancer cells, CD133+ /CD44+ cells have a stronger ability to recruit BMSCs. In addition, BMSCs were significantly transformed into cancer-associated fibroblasts after being recruited by CCSCs. After coculture of BMSCs and CCSCs, the expression of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, IL-32, and CCL20 was significantly increased. Compared with parental strains, CD133- /CD44- cells, and NCM460, BMSC secreted significantly more IL-8 after coculture with CD133+ /CD44+ cells. Low concentration of IL-8 peptide inhibitors (100 ng/ml) and CXC receptor 2 (CXCR2) inhibitors have little effect on the migration of BMSCs, but can effectively weaken CCSC stemness and promote dormant CSCs in the coculture system to re-enter into the cell cycle. The endogenous IL-8 knockout in BMSCs or BMSCs loaded with IL-8 and/or CXCR2 inhibitors will make the therapy of BMSC targeting CCSCs function at its best.

Impact of Angiogenesis- and Hypoxia-Associated Polymorphisms on Tumor Recurrence in Patients with Hepatocellular Carcinoma Undergoing Surgical Resection

Simple Summary

Hepatocellular carcinoma remains a leading cause of cancer-related death and the most common primary hepatic malignancy in the Western hemisphere. Previous research found that angiogenesis-related cytokines and elevated levels of interleukin 8 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) shorten the expected time of survival. Moreover, factors of tumor angiogenesis- and hypoxia-driven signaling pathways are already associated with worse outcome in disease-free survival in several tumor entities. Our study investigates the prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma patients based on a selection of ten different single-nucleotide polymorphisms from angiogenesis, carcinogenesis, and hypoxia pathways. Our study with 127 patients found supporting evidence that polymorphisms in angiogenesis-associated pathways corelate with disease-free survival and clinical outcome in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma.

Abstract

Tumor angiogenesis plays a pivotal role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) biology. Identifying molecular prognostic markers is critical to further improve treatment selection in these patients. The present study analyzed a subset of 10 germline polymorphisms involved in tumor angiogenesis pathways and their impact on prognosis in HCC patients undergoing partial hepatectomy in a curative intent. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues were obtained from 127 HCC patients at a German primary care hospital. Genomic DNA was extracted, and genotyping was carried out using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)–restriction fragment length polymorphism-based protocols. Polymorphisms in interleukin-8 (IL-8) (rs4073; p = 0.047, log-rank test) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF C + 936T) (rs3025039; p = 0.045, log-rank test) were significantly associated with disease-free survival (DFS). After adjusting for covariates in the multivariable model, IL-8 T-251A (rs4073) (adjusted p = 0.010) and a combination of “high-expression” variants of rs4073 and rs3025039 (adjusted p = 0.034) remained significantly associated with DFS. High-expression variants of IL-8 T-251A may serve as an independent molecular marker of prognosis in patients undergoing surgical resection for HCC. Assessment of the patients’ individual genetic risks may help to identify patient subgroups at high risk for recurrence following curative-intent surgery.

An overview of the role of interleukin-8 in colorectal cancer

Colorectal Cancer (CRC), a common malignancy, is developing globally among people. Mutagenic insults activate peripheral nucleated cells to secrete chemokines in order to cause an inflammatory state. Despite the presence of multi-retrieving factors, elevated production of minor cytokines may speed-up the sever stages of the baseline inflammation targeting normal compensatory mechanism. IL-8 is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that is believed to be up-regulated in CRC to proceed primary condition into tumor behavior via induction of proliferation, angiogenesis and metastasis. Here, we assess the role of IL-8 in every step of CRC from signaling pathway and formation to invasion and discuss around new perspective therapy that targets IL-8 to manage CRC worldwide incidence and survival rate, more precisely.

Expression and secretion of the pro‑inflammatory cytokine IL‑8 is increased in colorectal cancer cells following the knockdown of non‑erythroid spectrin αII

Non‑erythroid spectrin αII (SPTAN1) expression is decreased in ~40% of cases of MLH1‑deficient colorectal cancer (CRC). SPTAN1 knockdown reduces cell viability, cellular mobility and cell‑cell contact formation, indicating that the SPTAN1 plays an important role in tumour growth, attachment and in regulating the tumour microenvironment. Changes in the tumour microenvironment can affect the immune response. Therefore, in the present study, proteome arrays were used to analyse the expression of 119 different chemokines and soluble receptors in CRC cell lines in which mutL homologue 1 (MLH1) or SPTAN1 were knocked down. The levels of interleukin (IL)‑8 were significantly increased in the cells in which SPTAN1 was knocked down, both at the mRNA and protein level. ELISA demonstrated that the cells in which SPTAN1 was knocked down secreted increased quantities of IL‑8, and chemotaxis assays revealed the enhanced trafficking of neutrophils, which was induced by media containing higher levels of IL‑8. The IL‑8 receptors, CRCX1 and CRCX2, were expressed in all the cell lines examined; however, their expression was not directly associated with IL‑8 expression. The results of the present study thus demonstrated that CRC cells in which SPTAN1 was knocked down secreted significantly higher levels of IL‑8, which in‑turn increased the migration of neutrophilic granulocytes. As MLH1‑deficient CRC exhibits an increased infiltration of cytotoxic T‑cells and is associated with a decreased SPTAN1 expression, it can thus be hypothesized that CRC with a low SPTAN1 expression may release increased quantities of IL‑8, resulting in increased immune cell infiltration.

Hsp60 and IL-8 axis promotes apoptosis resistance in cancer

Background

Interleukin-8 (IL-8) and heat shock protein 60 (Hsp60) play crucial roles in cell survival and maintenance of cellular homoeostasis. However, cross talks between these two proteins are not defined.

Methods

IL-8 expression in tumour tissue sections was analysed by immunohistochemistry. IL-8 expression and release in cancer cells was quantified using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Apoptosis was quantified using caspase activity and Annexin-V/PI staining.

Results

We observed IL-8 release from cancer cells in response to histone deacetylase inhibitor, apicidin (Api), and non-competitive inhibitor of the sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ ATPase, thapsigargin (TG). IL-8 release was increased upon TG-treatment. TG-induced IL-8 expression was reduced in the presence of Api in Bax-dependent manner. Increased apoptosis was associated with decreased IL-8 expression in response to combined treatment of TG and Api. TG and Api combination induced caspase-8 and caspase-9 dependent apoptosis. Hsp60 knockdown abrogated IL-8 expression induced by Api, TG, and their combination. The level of TGF-β, an upstream regulator of IL-8, was decreased upon Hsp60-silencing. Knocking down Hsp60 decreased IL-8 expression and its release in prostate cancer cell xenograft tumours in SCID mice.

Conclusion

This study describes the underlying mechanism associated with apoptosis resistance mediated via Hsp60-IL-8 axis in cancer.

Knockdown of neuron-specific enolase suppresses the proliferation and migration of NCI-H209 cells

Neuron-specific enolase (NSE) is generally considered as a marker for diagnosis and evaluation of the response to therapy in small cell lung cancer (SCLC). However, the role of NSE in the progression of SCLC remains to be elucidated. In the present study, the functions of NSE in SCLC, in addition to the potential mechanisms, were investigated using a loss-of-function approach with NSE-targeting small interfering (si)RNA. The knockdown of NSE markedly decreased the proliferation of NCI-H209 cells, as indicated by MTT assay (P<0.05). Furthermore, the silencing of NSE resulted in the formation of smaller and fewer colonies compared with that in the control group (P<0.001). Flow cytometric analysis indicated that the silencing of NSE resulted in a decreased S-phase population among NCI-H209 cells (P<0.05). Transwell assay demonstrated that the silencing of NSE suppressed the migration of NCI-H209 cells (P<0.001). NCI-H209 cells transfected with NSE siRNA-1 or negative control were collected and the protein levels of metastasis-associated genes were detected using western blot analysis. The results indicated that the knockdown of NSE led to downregulation of the pro-metastatic gene vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF; P<0.05) and the upregulation of metastasis suppressor genes NM23 and E-cadherin (P<0.05). Taken together, the results of the present study demonstrated that the silencing of NSE suppressed the migration, proliferation and colony formation ability of SCLC cells and decreased the S-phase population. In addition, the knockdown of NSE resulted in the upregulation of E-cadherin and NM23 and the downregulation of VEGF. Collectively, these results indicated that intracellular NSE may have an important role in the progression of SCLC.

Contribution of Genetic Polymorphisms of Inflammation Response Genes on Sporadic Colorectal Cancer Predisposition Risk in Malaysian Patients - A Case Control Study

AIM:

To investigate the frequencies and association of polymorphic genotypes of IL-8 -251 T>A, TNF-α -308 G>A, ICAM-1 K469E, ICAM-1 R241G, IL-6 -174 G>C, and PPAR-γ 34 C>G in modulating susceptibility risk in Malaysian colorectal cancer (CRC) patients.

Methods:

In this case-control study, peripheral blood samples of 560 study subjects (280 CRC patients and 280 controls) were collected, DNA extracted and genotyped using PCR-RFLP and Allele Specific PCR. The association between polymorphic genotype and CRC susceptibility risk was determined using Logistic Regression analysis deriving Odds ratio (OR) and 95% CI.

Results:

On comparing the frequencies of genotypes of all single nucleotide polymorphisms ( SNPs ) in patients and controls, the homozygous variant genotypes IL-8 -251 AA and TNF-α -308 AA and variant A alleles were significantly higher in CRC patients. Investigation on the association of the variant alleles and genotypes singly, with susceptibility risk showed the homozygous variant A alleles and genotypes IL-8 -251 AA and TNF-α -308 AA to be at higher risk for CRC predisposition. Analysis based on age, gender and smoking habits showed that the polymorphisms IL8 -251 T>A and TNF – α 308 G>A contribute to a significantly higher risk among male and female who are more than 50 years and for smokers in this population.

Conclusion:

We observed an association between variant allele and genotypes of IL-8-251 T>A and TNF-α-308 G>A polymorphisms and CRC susceptibility risk in Malaysian patients. These two SNPs in inflammatory response genes which undoubtedly contribute to individual risks to CRC susceptibility may be considered as potential genetic predisposition factors for CRC in Malaysian population.

Advances in Tumor-Stroma Interactions: Emerging Role of Cytokine Network in Colorectal and Pancreatic Cancer

Cytokines are a family of soluble factors (Growth Factors (GFs), chemokines, angiogenic factors, and interferons), which regulate a wide range of mechanisms in both physiological and pathological conditions, such as tumor cell growth and progression, angiogenesis, and metastasis. In recent years, the growing interest in developing new cancer targeted therapies has been accompanied by the effort to characterize Tumor Microenvironment (TME) and Tumor-Stroma Interactions (TSI). The connection between tumor and stroma is now well established and, in the last decade, evidence from genetic, pharmacological, and epidemiological data supported the importance of microenvironment in tumor progression. However, several of the mechanisms behind TSI and their implication in tumor progression remain still unclear and it is crucial to establish their potential in determining pharmacological response. Many studies have demonstrated that cytokines network can profoundly affect TME, thus displaying potential therapeutic efficacy in both preclinical and clinical models. The goal of this review is to give an overview of the most relevant cytokines involved in colorectal and pancreatic cancer progression and their implication in drug response.

The capability and potential of new forms of personalized colon cancer treatment: Immunotherapy and Photodynamic Therapy

INTRODUCTION

PDT can interfere with cytokine-mediated responses that play an important role in the processes of cancer progression, tumor angiogenesis and metastasis. Therefore, based on the identification of these cancer biomarkers, the therapy of combining various forms of treatment, including immunotherapy and PDT, may be a justified strategy for colorectal cancer treatment that focuses on individualized comprehensive therapy.

METHOD

We reviewed the major approaches on the use of immunotherapy in colorectal cancer, with the special regard to photodynamic therapy, its immunological effect and new oncological treatment directions, connected with adjuvant immunotherapy including use of nanoparticles. Databases such as PubMed, ScienceDirect and Springer were utilized to search the literature for relevant articles.

PURPOSE

To review studies of the immunotherapy in colon cancer and immune response to PDT.

CONCLUSION

Based on the identification of immunological cancer biomarkers, the therapy of combining various forms of treatment, including immunotherapy and PDT, may be a justified strategy for colorectal cancer treatment that focuses on individualized comprehensive therapy.

Translating IDEA to Practice and Beyond: Managing Stage II and III Colon Cancer

Adjuvant fluoropyrimidine-based chemotherapy has been the standard of care for resected stage III colon cancer since the 1990s; the evolution from 12 to 6 months of fluoropyrimidine therapy and the addition of oxaliplatin to fluoropyrimidine therapy have led to the current accepted standard. However, controversies remain. What is the benefit of adjuvant chemotherapy in stage II disease, and in whom? What is the optimal duration of adjuvant chemotherapy? How should patients with early-stage colon cancer be followed after surgery and adjuvant treatment? Recent evidence has emerged to help inform these important questions, including the International Duration Evaluation of Adjuvant therapy (IDEA) collaboration, which is the largest, prospective study in colon cancer with 12,834 patients. This review discusses current and future risk stratification strategies in stage II disease: the optimal duration of adjuvant oxaliplatin-containing chemotherapy in stage II and III disease according to the IDEA study, and the recent evidence and updated recommendations for surveillance of early-stage colon cancer after resection.

LIFR promotes tumor angiogenesis by up-regulating IL-8 levels in colorectal cancer

Leukemia inhibitory factor receptor (LIFR) has been documented as a cancer promoter and to be present at high levels in various types of tumor tissues. In our search for molecules prognostic of colorectal cancer (CRC), we found high levels of LIFR in CRC tissue samples. Further analyses revealed that LIFR was indeed prognostic of CRC patient survival, and was associated with tumor size, lymphatic metastasis and stages. LIFR was found to promote tumor growth, metastasis and angiogenesis both in vitro and in vivo. High levels of LIFR in CRC facilitated proliferation and migration of endothelial cells, resulting in an increase in angiogenic activity. Moreover, interleukin 8 (IL-8) was found to play a role in the LIFR induced angiogenesis. IL-8 levels were correlated with LIFR levels in CRC tissues, whereas depletion of IL-8 led to a reduced angiogenic activity of LIFR in CRC cells. In addition, LIFR increased phosphorylation level of Erk, which regulates il-8 transcription. We conclude that LIFR is possibly a valuable prognostic marker for CRC. Our results also implicate a mechanism by which LIFR regulates tumor angiogenesis through Erk/IL-8 pathway, and that LIFR could be a potential therapeutic target for CRC.

IL-8 regulates the doxorubicin resistance of colorectal cancer cells via modulation of multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1)

Cytokines play important roles in tumorigenesis and progression of cancer cells, while their functions in drug resistance remain to be illustrated. We successfully generated doxorubicin (Dox)-resistant CRC HCT-116 and SW480 cells (namely HCT-116/Dox and SW480/Dox, respectively). Cytokine expression analysis revealed that IL-8, while not FGF-2, EGF, TGF-β, IL-6, or IL-10, was significantly increased in Dox-resistant CRC cells as compared with their corresponding parental cells. Targeted inhibition of IL-8 via siRNAs or its inhibitor reparixin can increase the Dox sensitivity of HCT-116/Dox and SW480/Dox cells. The si-IL-8 can decrease the mRNA and protein expression of multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1, encoded by ABCB1), while has no effect on the expression of multidrug resistance-associated protein 1 (ABCC1), in CRC Dox-resistant cells. IL-8 can increase the phosphorylation of p65 and then upregulate the binding between p65 and promoter of ABCB1. BAY 11-7082, the inhibitor of NF-κB, suppressed the recombination IL-8 (rIL-8) induced upregulation of ABCB1. It confirmed that NF-κB is involved in IL-8-induced upregulation of ABCB1. rIL-8 also increased the phosphorylation of IKK-β, which can further activate NF-κB, while specific inhibitor of IKK-β (ACHP) can reverse rIL-8-induced phosphorylation of p65 and upregulation of MDR1. These results suggested that IL-8 regulates the Dox resistance of CRC cells via modulation of MDR1 through IKK-β/p65 signals. The targeted inhibition of IL-8 might be an important potential approach to overcome the clinical Dox resistance in CRC patients.

Emergency resection surgery for colorectal cancer: Patterns of recurrent disease and survival

AIM

To evaluate prognostic pathological factors associated with early metachronous disease and adverse long-term survival in these patients.

METHODS

Clinical and histological features were analysed retrospectively over an eight-year period for prognostic impact on recurrent disease and overall survival in patients undergoing curative resection of a primary colorectal cancer.

RESULTS

A total of 266 patients underwent curative surgery during the study period. The median age of the study cohort was 68 year (range 26 to 91) with a follow-up of 7.9 years (range 4.6 to 12.6). Resection was undertaken electively in 225 (84.6%) patients and emergency resection in 35 (13.2%). Data on timing of surgery was missing in 6 patients. Recurrence was noted in 67 (25.2%) during the study period and was predominantly early within 3 years (82.1%) and involved hepatic metastasis in 73.1%. Emergency resection (OR = 3.60, P = 0.001), T4 stage (OR = 4.33, P < 0.001) and lymphovascular invasion (LVI) (OR = 2.37, P = 0.032) were associated with higher risk of recurrent disease. Emergency resection, T4 disease and a high lymph node ratio (LNR) were strong independent predictors of adverse long-term survival.

CONCLUSION

Emergency surgery is associated with adverse disease free and long-term survival. T4 disease, LVI and LNR provide strong independent predictive value of long-term outcome and can inform surveillance strategies to improve outcomes.

Colorectal polypoid lesions and expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in a consecutive series of endoscopic and surgical patients

Colorectal cancer incidence in patients undergoing screening protocols is decreasing because of the higher rate of discovered preneoplastic colonic lesions; however, adenomatous polyps may not always be removable endoscopically and surgery may still be necessary. The aim of this study was to assess the vascular endothelial growth factor expression in the different steps of colorectal carcinogenesis to explore its potential role as a marker of malignancy in polypoid lesions. A total of 92 subjects with colonic adenoma or cancer who underwent screening colonoscopy or surgery were prospectively enrolled. Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction for VEGF-A messenger RNA expression and immunohistochemistry for VEGF-A were performed. Immunoassays for VEGF-A, VEGF-C, VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2, and VEGFR-3 were also performed. Non-parametric statistics, receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, and logistic multiple regression analysis were used. VEGF-A messenger RNA expression was higher in patients with high-grade dysplasia or colorectal cancer than in those with low-grade dysplasia adenomas (p = 0.01). At immunohistochemistry, VEGF-A expression was significantly higher in colorectal cancer patients compared to dysplastic adenomas (p < 0.001), and the accuracy of VEGF-A expression for prediction of malignancy was 91.7 (95% confidence interval = 78.7-97.9). VEGF-C protein expression was lower in colorectal cancer patients than in simple adenomas (p = 0.02). VEGF-A levels were directly correlated to polyp size (rho = 0.73, p = 0.0062). Multivariate analysis demonstrated that malignancy and polyp size were independent predictors of VEGF-A mucosal levels. This study demonstrated that the VEGF-A expression changes along the colorectal carcinogenesis pathway showing a neat step up at the passage from high-grade dysplasia to invasive cancer. This feature might potentially be useful to stratify colorectal polyps in different risks of progression classes. Moreover, the high level of VEGF-A expression predicted the presence of lymphovascular invasion with good accuracy.

Prognostic significance of vascular endothelial growth factor polymorphisms in colorectal cancer patients

AIM

To investigate the associations of the genetic polymorphisms of vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) -1498C>T and -634G>C, with the survival of patients with colorectal cancer (CRC).

METHODS

A prospective cohort consisting of 131 Brazilians patients consecutively operated on with a curative intention as a result of sporadic colorectal carcinoma was studied. DNA was extracted from peripheral blood and its amplification and allelic discrimination for each genetic polymorphism was performed using the technique of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in real-time. The real-time PCR technique was used to identify the VEGF-A -1498C>T (rs833031) and -634G>C (rs2010963) polymorphisms. Genotyping was validated for VEGF-A -1498C>T polymorphism in 129 patients and for VEGF-A -634G>C polymorphism in 118 patients. The analysis of association between categorical variables was performed using logistic regression, survival by Kaplan-Meier method and multivariate analysis by the Cox regression method.

RESULTS

In the univariate analysis there was a significant association (OR = 0.32; P = 0.048) between genotype CC of the VEGF-A -1498C>T polymorphism and the presence of CRC liver metastasis. There was no association between VEGF-A -1498C>T polymorphism and VEGF-A -634G>C polymorphism with further clinical or anatomopathologic variables. The genotype CC of the VEGF-A -1498C>T polymorphism was significantly correlated with the 5-year survival (P = 0.032), but not significant difference (P = 0.27) was obtained with the VEGF-A -634G>C polymorphism with the 5-year survival in the univariate analysis. The genotype CT (HR = 2.79) and CC (HR = 4.67) of the polymorphism VEGF-A -1498C>T and the genotype CC (HR = 3.76) of the polymorphism VEGF-A -634C>G acted as an independent prognostic factor for the risk of death in CRC patients.

CONCLUSION

The CT and CC genotypes of the VEGF-A -1498C>T and the CC genotype of the VEGF-A -634C>G polymorphisms are prognostic factors of survival in Brazilians patients with sporadic colorectal carcinoma.

Biology and therapeutic implications of VEGF-A splice isoforms and single-nucleotide polymorphisms in colorectal cancer

Tumor growth, dissemination and metastasis are dependent on angiogenesis. The predominant vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) isoform that plays a major role in angiogenesis is VEGF-A. Indeed, VEGF-A is implicated in promoting angiogenesis of numerous solid malignancies, including colorectal cancer (CRC). A large body of preclinical and clinical evidence indicates that the expression of specific VEGF-A isoforms represents a predominant pro-angiogenic factor, which is associated with formation of metastases and poor prognosis in CRC patients. Different isoforms of human VEGF-A have been identified, all of which arise from alternative splicing of the primary transcript of a single gene. Notably, it has been recently demonstrated that expression of type 3 isoform pattern is significantly correlated with venous involvement in CRC as well as in progression to metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC), although it remains unclear what proportion of CRC tumors express these isoforms. This review highlights the importance of investigating the genetic and the epigenetic variations in VEGF-A pathways in CRC, the functions of different VEGF-A isoforms and their potential application as prognostic markers and/or therapeutic targets. Better understanding of the mechanisms controlling angiogenesis in liver metastases is necessary to address the limitations of current anti-angiogenic therapies.

Association between higher expression of interleukin-8 (IL-8) and haplotype -353A/-251A/+678T of IL-8 gene with preeclampsia: A case-control study

Preeclampsia (PE) is a common pregnancy-specific disorder associated with significant maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality worldwide.The present study was performed to investigate the role of a CXC chemokine interleukin-8 (IL-8), in the pathogenesis of PE. IL-8 expression levels were assessed in placental and serum samples from 160 pregnant women with PE (N = 68 severe, 92 mild) and 140 healthy donors.Results from enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay showed that the concentration of serum IL-8 in PE patients (180.27 ± 5.81 ng/L) was significantly higher than that in healthy controls (41.57 ± 5.67 ng/L). Patients with severe PE had even higher serum IL-8 levels. Similar messenger RNA and protein expression patterns of IL-8 in placental tissues were confirmed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemical assay (N = 30 each in the mild PE, severe PE, and control groups). In addition, single nucleotide polymorphisms of IL-8 gene were detected with polymerase chain reaction-restricted fragment length polymorphism/SSP. The frequency of IL-8-251A allele was significantly higher than that in controls (58.4% vs 48.9%, P < 0.05). The occurrence frequency of haplotype -353A/-251A/+678T (AAT) in PE subjects was 27.2% as compared to 21.9% in the control participants (P < 0.05).Our study reveals that IL-8 expression is positively associated with the severity of PE. Presence of haplotype AAT in pregnant women appears to be a risk factor for PE.

Cytokine-Induced Modulation of Colorectal Cancer

The emergence of novel immunomodulatory cancer therapies over the last decade, above all immune checkpoint blockade, has significantly advanced tumor treatment. For colorectal cancer (CRC), a novel scoring system based on the immune cell infiltration in tumors has greatly improved disease prognostic evaluation and guidance to more specific therapy. These findings underline the relevance of tumor immunology in the future handling and therapeutic approach of malignant disease. Inflammation can either promote or suppress CRC pathogenesis and inflammatory mediators, mainly cytokines, critically determine the pro- or anti-tumorigenic signals within the tumor environment. Here, we review the current knowledge on the cytokines known to be critically involved in CRC development and illustrate their mechanisms of action. We also highlight similarities and differences between CRC patients and murine models of CRC and point out cytokines with an ambivalent role for intestinal cancer. We also identify some of the future challenges in the field that should be addressed for the development of more effective immunomodulatory therapies.

Prognostic value of serum IL-17 and VEGF levels in small cell lung cancer

OBJECTIVE

To explore the prognostic value of serum interleukin-17 (IL-17) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels in patients with small cell lung cancer (SCLC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

IL-17 and VEGF levels were determined by a commercially available ELISA method.

RESULTS

Serum IL-17 and VEGF levels were higher in the SCLC group than the control group (p&lt;0.001 and p&lt;0.0001, respectively). In addition, there was a significant correlation between IL-17 and VEGF. The level of IL-17 showed significant correlations with tumor stage and tumor metastasis, while serum VEGF levels were significantly associated only with tumor metastasis. Univariate and multivariate analysis indicated that an elevated IL-17 level was an independent prognostic factor for shorter overall survival in SCLC.

CONCLUSIONS

IL-17 may play an important role in tumor dissemination in SCLC patients and measurement of IL-17 could have useful prognostic value for worse overall survival in patients with SCLC.

Impact of VEGF gene polymorphisms in elderly cancer patients: clinical outcome and toxicity

Vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) are the key regulators in angiogenesis and have been shown to play a significant role in the progression and prognosis of angiogenesis-related diseases, such as cancer. VEGF inhibitors are a current pharmacological tumoral strategy. However, despite the strong association between aging and cancer incidence and progression, recent findings suggest impaired angiogenesis accompanied by a reduced expression of VEGF in cells derived from aging subjects. Specific variations of VEGF genes have been demonstrated to be genetic determinants for susceptibility, outcome and therapy response, especially for the solid tumors. Considering the complications present in frail elderly patients, analysis of VEGF genetic polymorphisms in these subjects may further help in tailoring an angiogenic pharmacological strategy, and in improving our ability to better understand prognosis during therapy-related to cancer.

Emerging cytokine networks in colorectal cancer

Cytokine networks are crucial aspects of tumour immunology, particularly for colorectal cancer (CRC), in which inflammation and antitumour immunity are key determinants of disease progression. In this Review, we highlight new insights into the functions of well-known cytokines in CRC, describe recently discovered roles for a growing number of novel players, and emphasize the complexity and therapeutic implications of the cytokine milieu. We also discuss how cancer mutations and epigenetic adaptations influence the oncogenic potential of cytokines, a relatively unexplored area that could yield crucial insights into tumour immunology and facilitate the effective application of cytokine-modulatory therapies for CRC.

Genetic markers of recurrence in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) worldwide belongs to one of the most frequent cancers affecting both genders. Surgery and 5-fluorouracil-based adjuvant chemotherapy are recommended for patients with high-risk stage II and stage III colon carcinoma. Mutations of genes encoding for specific proteins may have an impact on the time to recurrence. These proteins act over specific signaling pathways, are implicated in metabolic processes and regulate the cell cycle. Though many retrospective studies show strong associations between genetic mutations and the clinical outcome of patients with CRC, currently no validated biomarkers are used in clinical routine settings. Therefore, large prospective validation studies should be carried out in order to strengthen the position of genetic mutations in personalized treatment of patients with CRC.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor regulates cell motility in human colon cancer

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a potent neurotrophic factor that has been shown to affect cancer cell metastasis and migration. In the present study, we investigated the mechanisms of BDNF-induced cell migration in colon cancer cells. The migratory activities of two colon cancer cell lines, HCT116 and SW480, were found to be increased in the presence of human BDNF. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO)-1 is known to be involved in the development and progression of tumors. However, the molecular mechanisms that underlie HO-1 in the regulation of colon cancer cell migration remain unclear. Expression of HO-1 protein and mRNA increased in response to BDNF stimulation. The BDNF-induced increase in cell migration was antagonized by a HO-1 inhibitor and HO-1 siRNA. Furthermore, the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) also increased in response to BDNF stimulation, as did VEGF mRNA expression and transcriptional activity. The increase in BDNF-induced cancer cell migration was antagonized by a VEGF-neutralizing antibody. Moreover, transfection with HO-1 siRNA effectively reduced the increased VEGF expression induced by BDNF. The BDNF-induced cell migration was regulated by the ERK, p38, and Akt signaling pathways. Furthermore, BDNF-increased HO-1 and VEGF promoter transcriptional activity were inhibited by ERK, p38, and AKT pharmacological inhibitors and dominant-negative mutants in colon cancer cells. These results indicate that BDNF increases the migration of colon cancer cells by regulating VEGF/HO-1 activation through the ERK, p38, and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways. The results of this study may provide a relevant contribution to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which BDNF promotes colon cancer cell motility.

Influence of pre-analytical variables on VEGF gene expression and circulating protein concentrations

BACKGROUND

The extended role of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in human pathophysiology led us to evaluate pre-analytical parameters possibly influencing its levels in peripheral blood and tissues. The effects on VEGF protein levels and mRNA expression were measured after storage delay (blood and tissue), use of different types of anticoagulants (blood), and after different numbers of freeze-thaw cycles (blood).

METHODS

Blood from healthy donors was sampled simultaneously in ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), acid citrate dextrose (ACD-A), hirudin, and serum separation tubes. For each anticoagulant, VEGF was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with different conditions of delay at 4°C before centrifugation (2 h, 4 h, or 48 h) and of different numbers of freeze-thaw cycles (1, 2, and 10). The transcripts coding for the VEGF165 isoform were quantified in peripheral blood mononuclear cells by RT-PCR. Muscle biopsy samples were frozen with delays of 15, 30, or 60 min after surgery. VEGF expression was quantified on immunofluorescence stained slides.

RESULTS

The period of storage and the number of freeze-thaw cycles correlated with an increase in the levels of circulating VEGF (for each anticoagulant but not for serum) and its expression in PBMCs. VEGF expression measured from muscle biopsy sections was higher with freezing delays, with a peak at 30 and 60 min as compared to 15 min.

CONCLUSIONS

The most reliable conditions for measuring both circulating VEGF and its gene expression are to reduce time between blood collection and centrifugation, and to avoid multiple freeze-thaw cycles. Serum collection tubes with no additive and no separator were less sensitive to the pre-analytical variations analyzed in this study. Freezing delay had a significant influence on VEGF protein expression in tissue samples.

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the vascular endothelial growth factor pathway and outcomes of patients treated with first-line cytotoxic chemotherapy combined with bevacizumab for advanced colorectal cancer

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between the efficacy of first-line cytotoxic chemotherapy plus bevacizumab and single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of angiogenic genes in patients with advanced colorectal cancer (CRC).

METHODS

DNA was extracted from blood samples of 125 patients, and 12 SNPs were evaluated for association with the objective response rate (ORR), progression-free survival (PFS), and overall survival (OS).

RESULTS

The vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) rs833061 T/T was associated with superior ORR compared to its alternative genotypes (75.9 vs. 50.8%; p = 0.008), and the interleukin 8 rs4073 A/A genotype tended to be associated with poor ORR (45.0 vs. 66.0%; p = 0.067). The median PFS and OS were superior in patients with the fms-related tyrosine kinase 1 (FLT1) rs9513070 A/A genotype (8.7 vs. 6.6 months; p = 0.001 and 26.4 vs. 16.1 months; p = 0.038, respectively). The kinase insert domain receptor rs1531289 G/G genotype tended to be associated with improved PFS (8.0 vs. 7.1 months; p = 0.069). In haplotype analysis, the FLT1 rs9513070/rs9554320/rs9582036 GCA haplotype was associated with inferior PFS and OS (p = 0.004 and p = 0.041, respectively).

CONCLUSION

The VEGFA rs833061 SNP is associated with the ORR, and the FLT1 rs9513070 SNP and FLT1 GCA haplotypes are associated with PFS and OS in advanced CRC patients treated with cytotoxic chemotherapy plus bevacizumab.

A prognostic classifier consisting of 17 circulating cytokines is a novel predictor of overall survival for metastatic colorectal cancer patients

We aimed to determine the prognostic values of 39 circulating cytokines in Chinese patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (CRC) and to develop a novel cytokine-based prognostic classifier (CBPC) for prognostic prediction. A total of 176 patients were divided into two cohorts based on the date of first-line chemotherapy. The first 99 cases were assigned to the training cohort, and the remaining 77 cases were assigned to the validation cohort. Thirty-nine cytokines were simultaneously analyzed in the patient serum samples using multiplex bead-based Luminex technology. We used support vector machine-based methods and Cox proportional hazards models to develop a CBPC from the training cohort, which we then validated using the second patient cohort. Univariate analysis showed that FGF-2, TGFα, Flt-3L, GM-CSF, INFα2, GRO, IL-10, MCP-3, MDC, sIL-2Rα, IL-2, IL-7, IL-8, MCP-1, MIP-1β, TNFα and VEGF were significant risk factors affecting the overall survival (OS) of both the training cohort and the validation cohort. We developed a CBPC to predict the OS of metastatic CRC patients using these 17 cytokines (sensitivity, 0.835; specificity, 0.800). In the validation cohort, the CBPC was found to have significant power in predicting the OS of metastatic CRC patients. Our study showed that there were significant associations between cytokine expression and prognosis of the patients with metastatic CRC. The CBPC that we developed includes multiple circulating cytokines and may serve as a novel screening tool for identifying metastatic CRC patients with a high risk of short OS. These high-risk individuals may also be suitable for cytokine-targeted therapies.

VEGF pathway polymorphisms as prognostic and pharmacogenetic factors in cancer: a 2013 update

With the recent advances in genomic medicine and the development of targeted antiangiogenic therapy for cancer patients, there has been an increased interest in the role of predictive and prognostic markers for antiangiogenic therapy. Here, we provide a summary of the angiogenesis pathway, the role of predictive and prognostic markers in cancer and a summary of the current literature and studies on predictive and prognostic markers for antiangiogenic therapy. Our aim is to summarize those studies that are currently in the literature with an emphasis on the future directions of the field from 2013 and beyond. We conclude by providing our perspective on the future directions of this growing field, as well as possible challenges and pitfalls along the way.

Clinical importance of recently discovered gene variants in colon cancer recurrence and prognosis

SUMMARY 

Colorectal cancer survival has increased over the past few years, mainly due to the advances in the metastatic setting. Nonetheless, in the adjuvant scenario, minor improvements have been made, as the tumor's anatomopathological features remain to be most important factors for predicting the risk of recurrence and the prognosis. A deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in colorectal carcinogenesis, progression, invasion and metastasis development, have laid the groundwork for the search of genetic biomarkers that can help identify patients at a higher risk of recurrence. Common germline variants in genes within molecular pathways responsible for cancer development and progression have proven to influence the probability of relapse and the patient's prognosis. Here, we systematically review the relevance of genetic variants as prognostic biomarkers in colorectal carcinoma.

Lack of association of a common polymorphism in the 3' -UTR of interleukin 8 with non small cell lung cancer in Kashmir

BACKGROUND

Chronic inflammation is considered as an important factor in the pathogenesis of lung cancer. The presence of inflammatory cells and higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the tumor microenvironment and their surrounding tissues is gaining much importance in research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

One hundred ninety NSCLC cases and 200 age, smoking and sex matched controls were evaluated for association of IL-8 -251 (rs4073) and IL-8 -845 (rs2227532) in our population. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) was used followed by direct sequencing for the detection of SNPs.

RESULTS

The IL-8 -845 polymorphism was not found in our population. No significant association was observed between the IL-8 -251 AT genotypes and IL-8 -25 AA genotypes and NSCLC (p=0.05) in our population. The IL-8 -251 A allele was also non-significant (p=0.05) in NSCLC patients.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, this report reveals lack of association between IL-8 - 251 A/T polymorphism and NSCLC in our Kashmir Valley population.

Colorectal cancer surveillance: what's new and what's next

The accumulated evidence from two decades of randomized controlled trials has not yet resolved the question of how best to monitor colorectal cancer (CRC) survivors for early detection of recurrent and metachronous disease or even whether doing so has its intended effect. A new wave of trial data in the coming years and an evolving knowledge of relevant biomarkers may bring us closer to understanding what surveillance strategies are most effective for a given subset of patients. To best apply these insights, a number of important research questions need to be addressed, and new decision making tools must be developed. In this review, we summarize available randomized controlled trial evidence comparing alternative surveillance testing strategies, describe ongoing trials in the area, and compare professional society recommendations for surveillance. In addition, we discuss innovations relevant to CRC surveillance and outline a research agenda which will inform a more risk-stratified and personalized approach to follow-up.

Using multiple cytokines to predict hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence in two patient cohorts

BACKGROUND

Cytokines are tightly linked to the carcinogenesis, development and prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). We determined the prognostic value of 39 circulating cytokines in HCC patients after radical resection and then developed a novel cytokine-based prognostic classifier (CBPC) for the prediction of patient prognosis.

METHODS

A total of 179 patients were divided into two cohorts based on the date of radical resection. Thirty-nine cytokines were simultaneously analysed in patient serum samples using multiplex bead-based Luminex technology. Support vector machine-based methods and Cox proportional hazard models were used to develop a CBPC from the training cohort, which was then validated in the validation cohort.

RESULTS

Among seven cytokines significantly correlating with the disease-free survival (DFS) in the training cohort, six of them were validated to be significant prognostic factors to predict DFS and overall survival (OS) in the validation cohort, namely fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2), growth-regulated oncogene (GRO), interleukin 8 (IL-8), interferon gamma-induced protein 10 (IP-10), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and interferon alpha-2 (IFN-α2). By integrating six cytokines and three clinical characteristics, we developed a CBPC to predict the recurrence and 3-year OS of HCC patients (sensitivity, 0.648; specificity, 0.918). In the validation cohort, the CBPC were confirmed to have significant predictive power for predicting tumour recurrence and OS (sensitivity, 0.585; specificity, 0.857). Interestingly, IFN-α2 was the only cytokine being independent prognostic factor in both patient cohorts.

CONCLUSION

Our study verifies the presence of specific cytokine-phenotype associations with patient prognosis in HCC. The CBPC developed include multiple circulating cytokines and may serve as a novel screening approach for identifying HCC patients with a high risk of post-resection recurrence and shorter OS. These individuals may also be suitable for cytokine-targeted therapies.

Genotyping of IL-8-251 T > A yields prognostic information in patients with gastric carcinoma

This study was designed to investigate the association of the IL-8-251 T > A gene polymorphism with clinicopathological features and the prognostic role of the gene polymorphism in patients with gastric adenocarcinoma. The gene polymorphism was detected by the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism method, followed by univariate and multivariate analyses to elicit its prognostic role. The frequency of IL-8-251 A/A, A/T and T/T genotypes were 11.0% (23/210), 43.8% (92/210) and 45.2% (95/210), respectively. The IL-8-251 gene polymorphism was closely correlated with depth of invasion (p = 0.007), grade of differentiation (p = 0.002) and TNM stage (p = 0.009). A/A genotype carriers showed more frequency of serosa involvement, low grade of differentiation and advanced stage of gastric carcinoma. IL-8-251 T > A gene polymorphism have no significant correlation with other clinicopathological features. The 5-year overall survival of IL-8-251 A/A genotype and T allele carriers were 30.8% and 59.2%, respectively. There is a significant discrepancy among the different genotype carriers. Multivariate analysis with the Cox regression model revealed that the IL-8-251 A/A genotype is an independent prognostic indicator (HR = 2.285, 95% Confidence Interval = 1.06-4.93, p = 0.035). We conclude that the IL-8-251 A/A genotype may indicate a poor prognosis for gastric adenocarcinoma patients.

Inflammatory cytokines in human pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) remains one of the most lethal types of cancer with poor prognosis. Despite extensive efforts, the current treatment methods have limited success. Therefore, novel therapeutic approaches are required. The pancreatic tumor microenvironment is rich in growth factors and inflammatory cytokines that support tumor growth, and it is highly immunosuppressive. Up-regulation of cytokine pathways has been shown to modulate PDAC progression and immune evasion; therefore targeting cytokines may have therapeutic benefits. In this review we provide an overview of current understanding of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in pancreatic cancer and their potential as therapeutic targets.