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Cao N, Miao R, Sun B, Ren Z, Yue G. Exemplary Self-Discipline, Leniency towards Others: Competitive Contexts Amplify the "Black Sheep Effect" in Restoring Ingroup Trust. Behav Sci (Basel) 2024; 14:519. [PMID: 39062342 PMCID: PMC11273912 DOI: 10.3390/bs14070519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Intergroup interaction, a pivotal aspect of social interaction, encompasses both cooperation and competition. Group identity significantly impacts individual behaviors and decision-making processes. This influence manifests in two contrasting ways when addressing rule-breaking by interaction partners: in-group favoritism, where individuals are more lenient towards infractions committed by in-group members, and the black sheep effect, where in-group members are penalized for their rule-breaking. Although trust is crucial in intergroup interactions, the precise impact of group identity on trust restoration and the potential moderating role of intergroup interaction types remain to be elucidated. This study presents two experiments designed to explore these dynamics. In Study 1, the manipulation of group identity through a point estimation task was utilized to evaluate its impact on intergroup trust restoration via a series of repeated trust games. Study 2 aimed to explore the moderating role of intergroup interaction on intergroup trust restoration by contrasting cooperation and competition situations. The results uncovered a "black sheep effect", where participants demonstrated a greater propensity for trust restoration with out-group members than with in-group members. This effect, however, was only evident in competitive contexts. Conversely, in cooperative contexts, the individual's trust in the in-group and out-group members is effectively repaired. These findings contribute to a deeper comprehension of trust dynamics in intergroup interactions, promoting trust establishment and repair between diverse groups, thereby boosting team collaboration efficiency and mitigating conflicts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ningmeng Cao
- Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321001, China
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321001, China
- College of Education, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321001, China
| | - Runrun Miao
- Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321001, China
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321001, China
| | - Binghai Sun
- Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321001, China
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321001, China
| | - Zirong Ren
- Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321001, China
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321001, China
| | - Guoan Yue
- Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321001, China
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321001, China
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2
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Rodrigues AMM, Barker JL, Robinson EJH. The evolution of intergroup cooperation. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220074. [PMID: 36802776 PMCID: PMC9939261 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Sociality is widespread among animals, and involves complex relationships within and between social groups. While intragroup interactions are often cooperative, intergroup interactions typically involve conflict, or at best tolerance. Active cooperation between members of distinct, separate groups occurs very rarely, predominantly in some primate and ant species. Here, we ask why intergroup cooperation is so rare, and what conditions favour its evolution. We present a model incorporating intra- and intergroup relationships and local and long-distance dispersal. We show that dispersal modes play a pivotal role in the evolution of intergroup interactions. Both long-distance and local dispersal processes drive population social structure, and the costs and benefits of intergroup conflict, tolerance and cooperation. Overall, the evolution of multi-group interaction patterns, including both intergroup aggression and intergroup tolerance, or even altruism, is more likely with mostly localized dispersal. However, the evolution of these intergroup relationships may have significant ecological impacts, and this feedback may alter the ecological conditions that favour its own evolution. These results show that the evolution of intergroup cooperation is favoured by a specific set of conditions, and may not be evolutionarily stable. We discuss how our results relate to empirical evidence of intergroup cooperation in ants and primates. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Collective behaviour through time'.
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Affiliation(s)
- António M. M. Rodrigues
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9TH, UK,Schools of Medicine and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
| | - Jessica L. Barker
- Surgo Ventures, Washington, DC 20036, USA,Interacting Minds Centre, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark,Division of Population Health Sciences, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA
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3
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Disturbing the Spatial Organization of Biofilm Communities Affects Expression of agr-Regulated Virulence Factors in Staphylococcus aureus. Appl Environ Microbiol 2023; 89:e0193222. [PMID: 36700647 PMCID: PMC9973005 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01932-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus uses quorum sensing and nutrient availability to control the expression of agr-regulated virulence factors. Quorum sensing is mediated by autoinducing peptide (AIP), which at a high concentration reduces expression of surface attachment proteins (coa, fnbpA) and increases expression of exotoxins (lukS) and proteases (splA). Nutrient availability can be sensed through the saeS/saeR system. Low nutrients increase expression of saeR, which augments expression of coa and fnbpA, distinct from the activity of AIP. The formation of spatial structure, such as biofilms, can alter quorum sensing and nutrient acquisition. In natural environments, biofilms encounter forces that may alter their spatial structure. These forces may impact quorum sensing and/or nutrient acquisition and thus affect the expression of agr-regulated virulence factors. However, this has not been studied. We show that periodically disturbing biofilms composed of S. aureus using a physical force affected the expression of agr-regulated virulence factors. In nutrient-poor environments, disturbance increased the expression of coa, fnbpA, lukS, and splA. Disturbance in a nutrient-rich environment at low or high disturbance amplitudes moderately reduced expression of coa and fnbpA but increased expression of lukS and splA. Interestingly, at an intermediate amplitude, the overall expression of agr-regulated virulence factors was the lowest; expression of lukS and splA remained unchanged relative to an undisturbed biofilm, while expression of coa and fnbpA significantly decreased. We hypothesize that these changes are a result of disturbance-driven changes in access to AIP and nutrients. Our results may allow the identification of environments where virulence is enhanced, or reduced, owing to a disturbance. IMPORTANCE Bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus, integrate signals from the environment to regulate genes encoding virulence factors. These signals include those produced by quorum-sensing systems and nutrient availability. We show that disturbing the spatial organization of S. aureus populations can lead to changes in the expression of virulence factors, likely by altering the ways in which S. aureus detects these signals. Our work may allow us to identify environments that increase or reduce the expression of virulence factors in S. aureus.
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4
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Zhou C, Cheng X, Liu C, Li P. Interpersonal coordination enhances brain-to-brain synchronization and influences responsibility attribution and reward allocation in social cooperation. Neuroimage 2022; 252:119028. [PMID: 35217208 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Fair distribution of resources matters to both individual interests and group harmony during social cooperation. Different allocation rules, including equity- and equality-based rules, have been widely discussed in reward allocation research; however, it remains unclear whether and how individuals' cooperative manner, such as interpersonal coordination, influence their subsequent responsibility attribution and reward allocation. Here, 46 dyads conducted a time estimation task-either synergistically (the coordination group) or solely (the control group)-while their brain activities were measured using a functional near-infrared spectroscopy hyperscanning approach. Dyads in the coordination group showed higher behavioral synchrony and higher interpersonal brain synchronization (IBS) in the dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) during the time estimation task than those in the control group. They also showed a more egalitarian tendency of responsibility attribution for the task outcome. More importantly, dyads in the coordination group who had higher IBS in the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC) were more inclined to make egalitarian reward allocations, and this effect was mediated by responsibility attribution. Our findings elucidate the influence of interpersonal coordination on reward allocation and the critical role of the prefrontal cortex in these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Can Zhou
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, No 3688, Nanhai Road, Nanshan District, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Xiaojun Cheng
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, No 3688, Nanhai Road, Nanshan District, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Chengwei Liu
- School of Education, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan, China
| | - Peng Li
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, No 3688, Nanhai Road, Nanshan District, Shenzhen 518060, China; Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Affective and Social Cognitive Science, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China.
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5
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Xu L, Wang B, Guo W. The Effect of Task Difficulty and Self-Contribution on Fairness Consideration: An Event-Related Potential Study. Front Psychol 2022; 13:709310. [PMID: 35310266 PMCID: PMC8928160 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.709310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Self-contribution may be an influential factor in fairness consideration and consequent behavioral decisions. Few studies have investigated simultaneous effects of task difficulty and self-contribution on fairness consideration outcomes and associated neurophysiological responses. To elucidate modulation effects of task difficulty and self-contribution on fairness consideration, 30 recruited participants played a modified ultimatum game (UG) while undergoing event-related potential measurements. A 2 (task difficulty: hard vs. easy) × 3 (contribution: other-contribution vs. both-contribution vs. self-contribution) × 2 (fairness type: fair vs. unfair) within-subject design was adopted. A significant interaction between fairness type and contribution was observed in the behavioral data, with unfair offers being more acceptable in the other-contribution condition than in the self-contribution or both-contribution conditions. In the early processing time window, feedback-related negative magnitudes were greater in the hard condition than in the easy condition. P300 responses were more pronounced when participants contributed equally to the proposer than in the self- and other-contribution conditions. These results demonstrated that individuals’ decisions are influenced by their own effort contributions relative to those of others in cooperative contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyan Xu
- College of Physical Education, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Biye Wang
- College of Physical Education, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Institute of Sports, Exercise and Brain, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Wei Guo
- College of Physical Education, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Institute of Sports, Exercise and Brain, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
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6
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Li LL, Plotnik JM, Xia SW, Meaux E, Quan RC. Cooperating elephants mitigate competition until the stakes get too high. PLoS Biol 2021; 19:e3001391. [PMID: 34582437 PMCID: PMC8478180 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Cooperation is ubiquitous in the animal kingdom as it aims to maximize benefits through joint action. Selection, however, may also favor competitive behaviors that could violate cooperation. How animals mitigate competition is hotly debated, with particular interest in primates and little attention paid thus far to nonprimates. Using a loose-string pulling apparatus, we explored cooperative and competitive behavior, as well as mitigation of the latter, in semi-wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Our results showed that elephants first maintained a very high cooperation rate (average = 80.8% across 45 sessions). Elephants applied “block,” “fight back,” “leave,” “move side,” and “submission” as mitigation strategies and adjusted these strategies according to their affiliation and rank difference with competition initiators. They usually applied a “fight back” mitigation strategy as a sanction when competition initiators were low ranking or when they had a close affiliation, but were submissive if the initiators were high ranking or when they were not closely affiliated. However, when the food reward was limited, the costly competitive behaviors (“monopoly” and “fight”) increased significantly, leading to a rapid breakdown in cooperation. The instability of elephant cooperation as a result of benefit reduction mirrors that of human society, suggesting that similar fundamental principles may underlie the evolution of cooperation across species. This study shows that in a task requiring coordinated pulling, elephants compete for access to food but work to mitigate competition in order to maintain cooperation. If the cost of competition becomes too high, however, cooperation breaks down entirely. This behavior mirrors that seen in humans and other great apes, suggesting that certain cooperative mechanisms are not unique to primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Li Li
- Center for Integrative Conservation, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, China and Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Joshua M. Plotnik
- Department of Psychology, Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail: (JMP); (R-CQ)
| | - Shang-Wen Xia
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, China
| | - Estelle Meaux
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Conservation, College of Forestry, Guangxi University, Nanning, Guangxi, China
| | - Rui-Chang Quan
- Center for Integrative Conservation, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, China and Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
- Center of Conservation Biology, Core Botanical Gardens, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, China
- * E-mail: (JMP); (R-CQ)
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7
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Anthropological Prosociality via Sub-Group Level Selection. Integr Psychol Behav Sci 2021; 56:180-205. [PMID: 33893612 DOI: 10.1007/s12124-021-09606-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
A perennial challenge of evolutionary psychology is explaining prosocial traits such as a preference for fairness rather than inequality, compassion towards suffering, and an instinctive ability to coordinate within small teams. Considering recent fossil evidence and a novel logical test, we deem present explanations insufficiently explanatory of the divergence of hominins. In answering this question, we focus on the divergence of hominins from the last common ancestor (LCA) shared with Pan. We consider recent fossil discoveries that indicate the LCA was bipedal, which reduces the cogency of this explanation for hominin development. We also review evolutionary theory that claims to explain how hominins developed into modern humans, however it is found that no mechanism differentiates hominins from other primates. Either the mechanism was available to the last common ancestor (LCA) (with P. troglodytes as its proxy), or because early hominins had insufficient cognition to utilise the mechanism. A novel mechanism, sub-group level selection (sGLS) is hypothesised by triangulating two pieces of data rarely considered by evolutionary biologists. These are behavioural dimorphism of Pan (chimpanzees and bonobos) that remain identifiable in modern humans, and the social behaviour of primate troops in a savannah ecology. We then contend that sGLS supplied an exponential effect which was available to LCA who left the forest, but was not sufficiently available to any other primates. In conclusion, while only indirectly supported by various evidence, sGLS is found to be singularly and persuasively explanatory of human's unique evolutionary story.
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8
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Zhu N, Lu HJ, Chang L. Trust as social investment: A life-history model of environmental effects on ingroup and outgroup trust. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2020.110303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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9
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Yang S, Xu Q, Li P. Oxytocin modulates responsibility attribution and hypothetical Resource allocation during cooperation. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2020; 114:104597. [PMID: 32044651 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2019] [Revised: 01/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Reasonable responsibility attribution and resource allocation in intragroup contexts benefit the evolution of group cooperation. Oxytocin (OT) has been shown to promote prosocial behavior; however, it remains unclear whether OT affects responsibility attribution and hypothetical resource allocation. In the present study, participants were intranasally administered OT or placebo (PLC) before a response task with a partner. The participant could win a certain amount of money depending on the group's performance, which was determined by the faster player. The contribution was manipulated to be similar in the first phase, while the participants could individually contribute more in the second phase. Our results show that both groups attributed more credit to the player who performed better in a trial. Moreover, reward magnitude only enhanced effort-based attribution in the OT group. Although both groups proposed to distribute money based on individual efforts, the PLC group increased their effort-based allocation when they contributed more, regardless of the fact that the money was eventually equally distributed. Our study demonstrates that OT modulates responsibility attribution and hypothetical resource allocation in different manners, suggesting that OT has different effects on a participant's perception of individual contribution and fairness when allocating a reward during social cooperation in a real effort task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyao Yang
- Brain Function and Psychological Science Research Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Qiang Xu
- Brain Function and Psychological Science Research Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Peng Li
- Brain Function and Psychological Science Research Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China; Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Affective and Social Cognitive Science, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China.
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10
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Ito K, Doebeli M. The joint evolution of cooperation and competition. J Theor Biol 2019; 480:1-12. [PMID: 31323234 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2019.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
In nature, cooperation among individuals is often accompanied by competition among the same individuals for the cooperatively produced rewards. In such a situation, the evolution of cooperative and competitive investments influences each other, but previous theoretical studies mostly focused on either cooperation or competition. Here we consider a generic situation in which individuals cooperatively produce rewards according to the continuous snowdrift game, and then rewards are divided among cooperating individuals according to a generalized tug-of-war game. Using adaptive dynamics and numerical simulations, we investigated the joint evolution of two continuous traits, the investment in cooperation and in competition, respectively. We found that competition for the division of rewards promotes evolutionary branching, and hence polymorphism in both the cooperative and the competitive traits. In polymorphic populations, cooperation levels are positively correlated with competition levels among strains, so that cooperators tend to benefit disproportionately from the benefits produced. We also found that the mean cooperation level within the population is promoted by the competition. Our results show that coevolution of cooperation and competition has qualitatively different outcomes compared to the evolution of only cooperation or only competition, and suggest that it is important to simultaneously consider multiple aspects of social interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koichi Ito
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 4200-6270 University Blvd. Vancouver, B.C., V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - Michael Doebeli
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 4200-6270 University Blvd. Vancouver, B.C., V6T 1Z4, Canada
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11
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Christensen C, Radford AN. Dear enemies or nasty neighbors? Causes and consequences of variation in the responses of group-living species to territorial intrusions. Behav Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/ary010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew N Radford
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
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12
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Cuadrado E, Tabernero C, García R, Luque B, Seibert J. The Role of Prosocialness and Trust in the Consumption of Water as a Limited Resource. Front Psychol 2017; 8:694. [PMID: 28533760 PMCID: PMC5420575 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
This research analyzes the role of prosocialness and trust in the use of water as a limited resource under situations of competition or cooperation. For this purpose, 107 participants played the role of farmers and made decisions about irrigating their fields in the web-based multiplayer game Irrigania. Before the simulation exercise, participants’ prosocialness and trust levels were evaluated and they were randomly assigned to an experimental condition (competition or cooperation). Repeated measures analysis, using the 10 fields and the experimental conditions as factors, showed that, in the cooperation condition, farmers and their villages used a less selfish strategy to cultivate their fields, which produced greater benefits. Under competition, benefits to farmers and their villages were reduced over time. Mediational analysis shows that the selfish irrigation strategy fully mediated the relationship between prosocialness and accumulated profits; prosocial individuals choose less selfish irrigation strategies and, in turn, accumulated more benefit. Moreover, moderation analysis shows that trust moderated the link between prosocialness and water use strategy by strengthening the negative effect of prosocialness on selection of selfish strategies. The implications of these results highlight the importance of promoting the necessary trust to develop prosocial strategies in collectives; therefore, the efficacy of interventions, such as the creation of cooperative educational contexts or organization of collective actions with groups affected by water scarcity, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Cuadrado
- Instituto Maimónides de Investigacion Biomédica de CórdobaCórdoba, Spain.,Department of Psychology, University of CórdobaCórdoba, Spain
| | - Carmen Tabernero
- Instituto Maimónides de Investigacion Biomédica de CórdobaCórdoba, Spain.,Department of Social Psychology, University of SalamancaSalamanca, Spain
| | - Rocío García
- Department of Psychology, University of CórdobaCórdoba, Spain
| | - Bárbara Luque
- Instituto Maimónides de Investigacion Biomédica de CórdobaCórdoba, Spain.,Department of Psychology, University of CórdobaCórdoba, Spain
| | - Jan Seibert
- Department of Geography, University of ZurichZurich, Switzerland
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13
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Barker JL, Bronstein JL, Friesen ML, Jones EI, Reeve HK, Zink AG, Frederickson ME. Synthesizing perspectives on the evolution of cooperation within and between species. Evolution 2017; 71:814-825. [PMID: 28071790 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2016] [Revised: 12/24/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cooperation is widespread both within and between species, but are intraspecific and interspecific cooperation fundamentally similar or qualitatively different phenomena? This review evaluates this question, necessary for a general understanding of the evolution of cooperation. First, we outline three advantages of cooperation relative to noncooperation (acquisition of otherwise inaccessible goods and services, more efficient acquisition of resources, and buffering against variability), and predict when individuals should cooperate with a conspecific versus a heterospecific partner to obtain these advantages. Second, we highlight five axes along which heterospecific and conspecific partners may differ: relatedness and fitness feedbacks, competition and resource use, resource-generation abilities, relative evolutionary rates, and asymmetric strategy sets and outside options. Along all of these axes, certain asymmetries between partners are more common in, but not exclusive to, cooperation between species, especially complementary resource use and production. We conclude that cooperation within and between species share many fundamental qualities, and that differences between the two systems are explained by the various asymmetries between partners. Consideration of the parallels between intra- and interspecific cooperation facilitates application of well-studied topics in one system to the other, such as direct benefits within species and kin-selected cooperation between species, generating promising directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Barker
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 85721.,Current Address: Aarhus Institute of Advanced Studies, Aarhus University, 8000, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Judith L Bronstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 85721
| | - Maren L Friesen
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824
| | - Emily I Jones
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, Texas, 77005
| | - H Kern Reeve
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 14853
| | - Andrew G Zink
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, California, 94132
| | - Megan E Frederickson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3B2, Canada
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14
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Abstract
Our species is routinely depicted as unique in its ability to achieve cooperation, whereas our closest relative, the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), is often characterized as overly competitive. Human cooperation is assisted by the cost attached to competitive tendencies through enforcement mechanisms, such as punishment and partner choice. To examine if chimpanzees possess the same ability to mitigate competition, we set up a cooperative task in the presence of the entire group of 11 adults, which required two or three individuals to pull jointly to receive rewards. This open-group set-up provided ample opportunity for competition (e.g., freeloading, displacements) and aggression. Despite this unique set-up and initial competitiveness, cooperation prevailed in the end, being at least five times as common as competition. The chimpanzees performed 3,565 cooperative acts while using a variety of enforcement mechanisms to overcome competition and freeloading, as measured by (attempted) thefts of rewards. These mechanisms included direct protest by the target, third-party punishment in which dominant individuals intervened against freeloaders, and partner choice. There was a marked difference between freeloading and displacement; freeloading tended to elicit withdrawal and third-party interventions, whereas displacements were met with a higher rate of direct retaliation. Humans have shown similar responses in controlled experiments, suggesting shared mechanisms across the primates to mitigate competition for the sake of cooperation.
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15
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Abstract
Why should organisms incur a cost in order to inflict a (usually greater) cost on others? Such costly harming behavior may be favored when competition for resources occurs locally, because it increases individuals' fitness relative to close competitors. However, there is no explicit experimental evidence supporting the prediction that people are more willing to harm others under local versus global competition. We illustrate this prediction with a game theoretic model, and then test it in a series of economic games. In these experiments, players could spend money to make others lose more. We manipulated the scale of competition by awarding cash prizes to the players with the highest payoffs per set of social partners (local competition) or in all the participants in a session (global competition). We found that, as predicted, people were more harmful to others when competition was local (Study 1). This result still held when people "earned" (rather than were simply given) their money (Study 2). In addition, when competition was local, people were more willing to harm ingroup members than outgroup members (Study 3), because ingroup members were the relevant competitive targets. Together, our results suggest that local competition in human groups not only promotes willingness to harm others in general, but also causes ingroup hostility.
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16
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Evolutionary stability in continuous nonlinear public goods games. J Math Biol 2016; 74:499-529. [DOI: 10.1007/s00285-016-1017-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2015] [Revised: 02/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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17
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Barker JL, Loope KJ, Reeve HK. Asymmetry within social groups: division of labour and intergroup competition. J Evol Biol 2015; 29:560-71. [PMID: 26663312 PMCID: PMC4784174 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.12805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Revised: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Social animals vary in their ability to compete with group members over shared resources and also vary in their cooperative efforts to produce these resources. Competition among groups can promote within-group cooperation, but many existing models of intergroup cooperation do not explicitly account for observations that group members invest differentially in cooperation and that there are often within-group competitive or power asymmetries. We present a game theoretic model of intergroup competition that investigates how such asymmetries affect within-group cooperation. In this model, group members adopt one of two roles, with relative competitive efficiency and the number of individuals varying between roles. Players in each role make simultaneous, coevolving decisions. The model predicts that although intergroup competition increases cooperative contributions to group resources by both roles, contributions are predominantly from individuals in the less competitively efficient role, whereas individuals in the more competitively efficient role generally gain the larger share of these resources. When asymmetry in relative competitive efficiency is greater, a group's per capita cooperation (averaged across both roles) is higher, due to increased cooperation from the competitively inferior individuals. For extreme asymmetry in relative competitive efficiency, per capita cooperation is highest in groups with a single competitively superior individual and many competitively inferior individuals, because the latter acquiesce and invest in cooperation rather than within-group competition. These predictions are consistent with observed features of many societies, such as monogynous Hymenoptera with many workers and caste dimorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Barker
- Department of Neurobiology & Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - K J Loope
- Department of Neurobiology & Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - H K Reeve
- Department of Neurobiology & Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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Gavrilets S. Collective action problem in heterogeneous groups. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2015; 370:20150016. [PMID: 26503689 PMCID: PMC4633852 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
I review the theoretical and experimental literature on the collective action problem in groups whose members differ in various characteristics affecting individual costs, benefits and preferences in collective actions. I focus on evolutionary models that predict how individual efforts and fitnesses, group efforts and the amount of produced collective goods depend on the group's size and heterogeneity, as well as on the benefit and cost functions and parameters. I consider collective actions that aim to overcome the challenges from nature or win competition with neighbouring groups of co-specifics. I show that the largest contributors towards production of collective goods will typically be group members with the highest stake in it or for whom the effort is least costly, or those who have the largest capability or initial endowment. Under some conditions, such group members end up with smaller net pay-offs than the rest of the group. That is, they effectively behave as altruists. With weak nonlinearity in benefit and cost functions, the group effort typically decreases with group size and increases with within-group heterogeneity. With strong nonlinearity in benefit and cost functions, these patterns are reversed. I discuss the implications of theoretical results for animal behaviour, human origins and psychology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey Gavrilets
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA Department of Mathematics, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA National Institute for Mathematical and Biological Synthesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
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19
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Berger-Tal O, Embar K, Kotler BP, Saltz D. Everybody loses: intraspecific competition induces tragedy of the commons in Allenby's gerbils. Ecology 2015; 96:54-61. [PMID: 26236890 DOI: 10.1890/14-0130.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Interference competition may lead to a tragedy of the commons in which individuals driven by self-interest reduce the fitness of the entire group. We investigated this hypothesis in Allenby's gerbils, Gerbillus andersoni allenbyi, by comparing foraging behaviors of single vs. pairs of gerbils. We recorded strong interference competition within the foraging pairs. Competition reduced the amount of time the gerbils spent foraging, as well as foraging efficiency since part of the foragers' attention was directed toward detecting competitors (apparent predation risk). Single gerbils harvested significantly more food than the combined efforts of two gerbils foraging together. Competition reduced the success of both individuals within a pair by more than 50%, making this a case of the tragedy of the commons where each individual's investment in competition reduces the success of all individuals within the group, including its own. Despite their great costs, competitive behaviors will be selected for as long as one individual achieves higher fitness than the other. In nature, interspecific interactions, such as predation risk, may act to reduce and regulate the deleterious effects of intraspecific competition.
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20
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Debove S, Baumard N, André JB. Evolution of equal division among unequal partners. Evolution 2015; 69:561-9. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.12583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 11/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane Debove
- Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole normale supérieure (IBENS); INSERM 1024, CNRS 8197, Ecole normale supérieure - PSL Research University; Paris France
- Université Paris Descartes; Paris France
| | - Nicolas Baumard
- Département d'Etudes Cognitives; Institut Jean-Nicod (CNRS - EHESS - ENS), Ecole normale supérieure - PSL Research University; Paris France
| | - Jean-Baptiste André
- Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole normale supérieure (IBENS); INSERM 1024, CNRS 8197, Ecole normale supérieure - PSL Research University; Paris France
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21
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Liu G, Lin C, Xin Z. The effects of within- and between-group competition on trust and trustworthiness among acquaintances. PLoS One 2014; 9:e103074. [PMID: 25036147 PMCID: PMC4103862 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 06/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Several studies have indicated that between-group competition is a key stimulator of trust and trustworthiness. Another important but neglected type of competition may also affect trust and trustworthiness: within-group competition, especially competition among acquaintances. The present study investigated the effects of both within- and between-group competition on trust and trustworthiness, which were measured using an investment game played by acquaintances. We found that, compared to the participants' performance in the non-competition condition, when individuals were motivated to compete with their in-group members or the other groups for financial rewards, they demonstrated more trust. When individuals were motivated to compete with their in-group members, they exhibited lower trustworthiness than in non-competition and between-group competition. In addition, within-group competition decreased the trustor's payoff while both within- and between- group competition increased the trustee's payoff. Finally, we found that males trusted their group members more than females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guofang Liu
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P. R. China
- School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Chongde Lin
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Ziqiang Xin
- Department of Psychology at School of Social Development, Central University of Finance and Economics, Beijing, P. R. China
- * E-mail:
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Barclay P, Benard S. Who cries wolf, and when? Manipulation of perceived threats to preserve rank in cooperative groups. PLoS One 2013; 8:e73863. [PMID: 24069239 PMCID: PMC3772075 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0073863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2012] [Accepted: 07/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
People perform greater within-group cooperation when their groups face external threats, such as hostile outgroups or natural disasters. Researchers and social commentators suggest that high-ranking group members manipulate this "threat-dependent" cooperation by exaggerating threats in order to promote cooperation and suppress competition for their position. However, little systematic research tests this claim or possible situational moderators. In three studies, we use a cooperative group game to show that participants pay to increase others' perceptions of group threats, and spend more on manipulation when holding privileged positions. This manipulation cost-effectively elicits cooperation and sustains privilege, and is fostered by competition over position, not only position per se. Less cooperative people do more manipulation than more cooperative people do. Furthermore, these effects generalize to broader definitions of privilege. Conceptually, these results offer new insights into an understudied dimension of group behavior. Methodologically, the research extends cooperative group games to allow for analyzing more complex group dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pat Barclay
- Department of Psychology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Stephen Benard
- Department of Sociology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
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Barker JL, Barclay P, Reeve HK. Competition over personal resources favors contribution to shared resources in human groups. PLoS One 2013; 8:e58826. [PMID: 23520535 PMCID: PMC3592809 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0058826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Accepted: 02/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of social groups face a trade-off between investing selfish effort for themselves and investing cooperative effort to produce a shared group resource. Many group resources are shared equitably: they may be intrinsically non-excludable public goods, such as vigilance against predators, or so large that there is little cost to sharing, such as cooperatively hunted big game. However, group members' personal resources, such as food hunted individually, may be monopolizable. In such cases, an individual may benefit by investing effort in taking others' personal resources, and in defending one's own resources against others. We use a game theoretic “tug-of-war” model to predict that when such competition over personal resources is possible, players will contribute more towards a group resource, and also obtain higher payoffs from doing so. We test and find support for these predictions in two laboratory economic games with humans, comparing people's investment decisions in games with and without the options to compete over personal resources or invest in a group resource. Our results help explain why people cooperatively contribute to group resources, suggest how a tragedy of the commons may be avoided, and highlight unifying features in the evolution of cooperation and competition in human and non-human societies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Barker
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America.
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