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Pognan F, Beilmann M, Boonen HCM, Czich A, Dear G, Hewitt P, Mow T, Oinonen T, Roth A, Steger-Hartmann T, Valentin JP, Van Goethem F, Weaver RJ, Newham P. The evolving role of investigative toxicology in the pharmaceutical industry. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2023; 22:317-335. [PMID: 36781957 PMCID: PMC9924869 DOI: 10.1038/s41573-022-00633-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Abstract
For decades, preclinical toxicology was essentially a descriptive discipline in which treatment-related effects were carefully reported and used as a basis to calculate safety margins for drug candidates. In recent years, however, technological advances have increasingly enabled researchers to gain insights into toxicity mechanisms, supporting greater understanding of species relevance and translatability to humans, prediction of safety events, mitigation of side effects and development of safety biomarkers. Consequently, investigative (or mechanistic) toxicology has been gaining momentum and is now a key capability in the pharmaceutical industry. Here, we provide an overview of the current status of the field using case studies and discuss the potential impact of ongoing technological developments, based on a survey of investigative toxicologists from 14 European-based medium-sized to large pharmaceutical companies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francois Pognan
- Discovery and Investigative Safety, Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Mario Beilmann
- Nonclinical Drug Safety Germany, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Harrie C M Boonen
- Drug Safety, Dept of Exploratory Toxicology, Lundbeck A/S, Valby, Denmark
| | | | - Gordon Dear
- In Vitro In Vivo Translation, GlaxoSmithKline David Jack Centre for Research, Ware, UK
| | - Philip Hewitt
- Chemical and Preclinical Safety, Merck Healthcare KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Tomas Mow
- Safety Pharmacology and Early Toxicology, Novo Nordisk A/S, Maaloev, Denmark
| | - Teija Oinonen
- Preclinical Safety, Orion Corporation, Espoo, Finland
| | - Adrian Roth
- Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Freddy Van Goethem
- Predictive, Investigative & Translational Toxicology, Nonclinical Safety, Janssen Research & Development, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Richard J Weaver
- Innovation Life Cycle Management, Institut de Recherches Internationales Servier, Suresnes, France
| | - Peter Newham
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, AstraZeneca R&D, Cambridge, UK.
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Barber J, Sikakana P, Sadler C, Baud D, Valentin JP, Roberts R. A target safety assessment of the potential toxicological risks of targeting plasmepsin IX/X for the treatment of malaria. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2021; 10:203-213. [PMID: 33884171 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfaa106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The aspartic proteases plasmepsin IX/X are important antimalarial drug targets due to their specificity to the malaria parasite and their vital role as mediators of disease progression. Focusing on parasite-specific targets where no human homologue exists reduces the possibility of on-target drug toxicity. However, there is a risk of toxicity driven by inadequate selectivity for plasmepsins IX/X in Plasmodium over related mammalian aspartic proteases. Of these, CatD/E may be of most toxicological relevance as CatD is a ubiquitous lysosomal enzyme present in most cell types and CatE is found in the gut and in erythrocytes, the clinically significant site of malarial infection. Based on mammalian aspartic protease physiology and adverse drug reactions (ADRs) to FDA-approved human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) aspartic protease inhibitors, we predicted several potential toxicities including β-cell and congenital abnormalities, hypotension, hypopigmentation, hyperlipidaemia, increased infection risk and respiratory, renal, gastrointestinal, dermatological, and other epithelial tissue toxicities. These ADRs to the HIV treatments are likely to be a result of host aspartic protease inhibition due a lack of specificity for the HIV protease; plasmepsins are much more closely related to human CatD than to HIV proteinase. Plasmepsin IX/X inhibition presents an opportunity to specifically target Plasmodium as an effective antimalarial treatment, providing adequate selectivity can be obtained. Potential plasmepsin IX/X inhibitors should be assayed for inhibitory activity against the main human aspartic proteases and particularly CatD/E. An investigative rodent study conducted early in drug discovery would serve as an initial risk assessment of the potential hazards identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Barber
- ApconiX, Alderley Park, Alderley Edge, SK10 4TG, UK
| | | | | | - Delphine Baud
- Medicines for Malaria Venture, 20 Route de Pré-Bois, Geneva 1215, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Pierre Valentin
- UCB Biopharma SRL, Building R9, Chemin du Foriest, 1420 Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium
| | - Ruth Roberts
- ApconiX, Alderley Park, Alderley Edge, SK10 4TG, UK
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Total Syntheses of Cathepsin D Inhibitory Izenamides A, B, and C and Structural Confirmation of Izenamide B. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24193424. [PMID: 31547147 PMCID: PMC6804045 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24193424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The first total syntheses of izenamides A, B, and C, which are depsipeptides inhibitor of cathepsin D, were accomplished. In addition, the stereochemistry of izenamide B was confirmed by our syntheses. The key features of our synthetic route involve the avoidance of critical 2,5-diketopiperazine (DKP) formation and the minimization of epimerization during the coupling of amino acids for the target peptides.
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Coutinho MF, Prata MJ, Alves S. A shortcut to the lysosome: the mannose-6-phosphate-independent pathway. Mol Genet Metab 2012; 107:257-66. [PMID: 22884962 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymgme.2012.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2012] [Accepted: 07/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Lysosomal hydrolases have long been known to be responsible for the degradation of different substrates in the cell. These acid hydrolases are synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and transported through the Golgi apparatus to the trans-Golgi network (TGN). From there, they are delivered to endosomal/lysosomal compartments, where they finally become active due to the acidic pH characteristic of the lysosomal compartment. The majority of the enzymes leave the TGN after modification with mannose-6-phosphate (M6P) residues, which are specifically recognized by M6P receptors (MPRs), ensuring their transport to the endosomal/lysosomal system. Although M6P receptors play a major role in the intracellular transport of newly synthesized lysosomal enzymes in mammalian cells, several lines of evidence suggest the existence of alternative processes of lysosomal targeting. Among them, the two that are mediated by the M6P alternative receptors, lysosomal integral membrane protein (LIMP-2) and sortilin, have gained unequivocal support. LIMP-2 was shown to be implicated in the delivery of beta-glucocerebrosidase (GCase) to the lysosomes, whereas sortilin has been suggested to be a multifunctional receptor capable of binding several different ligands, including neurotensin and receptor-associated protein (RAP), and of targeting several proteins to the lysosome, including sphingolipid activator proteins (prosaposin and GM2 activator protein), acid sphingomyelinase and cathepsins D and H. Here, we review the current knowledge on these two proteins: their discovery, study, structural features and cellular function, with special attention to their role as alternative receptors to lysosomal trafficking. Recent studies associating both LIMP2 and sortilin to disease are also extensively reviewed.
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Getty AL, Pearce DA. Interactions of the proteins of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis: clues to function. Cell Mol Life Sci 2010; 68:453-74. [PMID: 20680390 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-010-0468-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2010] [Revised: 07/07/2010] [Accepted: 07/13/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCL) are caused by mutations in eight different genes, are characterized by lysosomal accumulation of autofluorescent storage material, and result in a disease that causes degeneration of the central nervous system (CNS). Although functions are defined for some of the soluble proteins that are defective in NCL (cathepsin D, PPT1, and TPP1), the primary function of the other proteins defective in NCLs (CLN3, CLN5, CLN6, CLN7, and CLN8) remain poorly defined. Understanding the localization and network of interactions for these proteins can offer clues as to the function of the NCL proteins and also the pathways that will be disrupted in their absence. Here, we present a review of the current understanding of the localization, interactions, and function of the proteins associated with NCL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Getty
- Sanford Children's Health Research Center, Sanford Research USD, Sanford School of Medicine of the University of South Dakota, 2301 East 60th Street North, Sioux Falls, SD 57104-0589, USA
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Seehafer SS, Pearce DA. Spectral properties and mechanisms that underlie autofluorescent accumulations in Batten disease. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2009; 382:247-51. [PMID: 19248764 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.02.099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2009] [Accepted: 02/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinoses (NCLs) have an incidence of 1 in 12,500 live births. These devastating neurodegenerative lysosomal storage diseases are characterized by the lysosomal accumulation of autofluorescent storage material (AFSM) similar to that seen in aging cells. Using patient derived lymphoblasts from three genetically distinct NCLs we report that AFSM for each NCL has distinct spectral properties. Moreover, by using pharmacological inhibitors to disrupt various biochemical pathways in normal control lymphoblasts we have determined that disruptions in microtubule assembly and non-muscle myosin II function results in accumulation of lysosomal AFSM. Interestingly, inhibition of autophagy did not result in AFSM. We conclude that cellular disturbances outside the lysosome in addition to compromised function of this organelle can result in accumulation of lysosomal AFSM in NCLs and possibly as a result of cellular aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina S Seehafer
- Center for Neural Development and Disease, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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Pan S, Shi M, Jin J, Albin RL, Lieberman A, Gearing M, Lin B, Pan C, Yan X, Kashima DT, Zhang J. Proteomics Identification of Proteins in Human Cortex Using Multidimensional Separations and MALDI Tandem Mass Spectrometer. Mol Cell Proteomics 2007; 6:1818-23. [PMID: 17644759 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m700158-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
It is essential to characterize the proteome of various regions of human brain because most, if not all, neurodegenerative diseases are region-specific. Here we report an in-depth proteomics identification of proteins extracted from the frontal cortex, a region playing a critical role in cognitive function. The integrated proteomics analytical flow consisted of biochemical fractionation, strong cation exchange chromatography, reverse phase liquid chromatography, and MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometric analysis. In total, 812 proteins were confidently identified with two or more peptides. These proteins demonstrated diverse isoelectric points and molecular weights and are involved in several molecular functions, including protein binding, catalytic activity, transport, structure, and signal transduction. A number of proteins known to be associated with neurodegenerative diseases were also identified. Detailed characterization of these proteins will supply the necessary information to appropriately interpret proteins associated with aging and/or age-related neurodegenerative diseases. Finally 140 proteins found in the cortical proteome were present in the proteome of cerebrospinal fluid, providing tissue-specific candidates for biomarker discovery in body fluid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Pan
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98104, USA
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