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Neill MG, Burma JS, Miutz LN, Kennedy CM, Penner LC, Newel KT, Smirl JD. Transcranial Doppler Ultrasound and Concussion-Supplemental Symptoms with Physiology: A Systematic Review. J Neurotrauma 2024. [PMID: 38468559 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2023.0421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Sport-related concussion (SRC) can impair the cerebrovasculature both acutely and chronically. Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasound assessment has the potential to illuminate the mechanisms of impairment and provide an objective evaluation of SRC. The current systematic review investigated studies employing TCD ultrasound assessment of intracranial arteries across three broad categories of cerebrovascular regulation: neurovascular coupling (NVC), cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR), and dynamic cerebral autoregulation (dCA). The current review was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) database (CRD42021275627). The search strategy was applied to PubMed, as this database indexes all biomedical journals. Original articles on TCD for athletes with medically diagnosed SRC were included. Title/abstract and full-text screening were completed by three authors. Two authors completed data extraction and risk of bias using the Methodological Index for Non-Randomized Studies and Scottish Intercollegiate Guideline Network checklists. Of the 141 articles identified, 14 met the eligibility criteria. One article used an NVC challenge, eight assessed CVR, and six investigated dCA. Methodologies varied widely among studies, and results were heterogeneous. There was evidence of cerebrovascular impairment in all three domains roughly 2 days post-SRC, but the magnitude and recovery of these impairments were not clear. There was evidence that clinical symptom resolution occurred before cerebrovascular function, indicating that physiological deficits may persist despite clinical recovery and return to play. Collectively, this emphasizes an opportunity for the use of TCD to illuminate the cerebrovascular deficits caused by SRC. It also highlights that there is need for consistent methodological rigor when employing TCD in a SRC population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew G Neill
- Cerebrovascular Concussion Lab, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Sport Injury Prevention Research Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Joel S Burma
- Cerebrovascular Concussion Lab, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Sport Injury Prevention Research Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Integrated Concussion Research Program, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Lauren N Miutz
- Cerebrovascular Concussion Lab, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Sport Injury Prevention Research Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Integrated Concussion Research Program, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Department of Health and Sport Science, University of Dayton, Dayton, Ohio, USA
| | - Courtney M Kennedy
- Cerebrovascular Concussion Lab, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Sport Injury Prevention Research Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Integrated Concussion Research Program, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Linden C Penner
- Cerebrovascular Concussion Lab, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Sport Injury Prevention Research Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Integrated Concussion Research Program, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Kailey T Newel
- Cerebrovascular Concussion Lab, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Sport Injury Prevention Research Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- School of Health and Exercise Sciences, Faculty of Health and Social Development, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
- Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jonathan D Smirl
- Cerebrovascular Concussion Lab, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Sport Injury Prevention Research Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Integrated Concussion Research Program, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Katsurayama M, Silva LS, de Campos BM, Avelar WM, Cendes F, Yasuda CL. Disruption of Resting-State Functional Connectivity in Acute Ischemic Stroke: Comparisons Between Right and Left Hemispheric Insults. Brain Topogr 2024:10.1007/s10548-024-01033-7. [PMID: 38302770 DOI: 10.1007/s10548-024-01033-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Few resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (RS-fMRI) studies evaluated the impact of acute ischemic changes on cerebral functional connectivity (FC) and its relationship with functional outcomes after acute ischemic stroke (AIS), considering the side of lesions. To characterize alterations of FC of patients with AIS by analyzing 12 large-scale brain networks (NWs) with RS-fMRI. Additionally, we evaluated the impact of the side (right (RH) or left (LH) hemisphere) of insult on the disruption of brain NWs. 38 patients diagnosed with AIS (17 RH and 21 LH) who performed 3T MRI scans up to 72 h after stroke were compared to 44 healthy controls. Images were processed and analyzed with the software toolbox UF2C with SPM12. For the first level, we generated individual matrices based on the time series extraction from 70 regions of interest (ROIs) from 12 functional NWs, constructing Pearson's cross-correlation; the second-level analysis included an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) to investigate differences between groups. The statistical significance was determined with p < 0.05, after correction for multiple comparisons with false discovery rate (FDR) correction. Overall, individuals with LH insults developed poorer clinical outcomes after six months. A widespread pattern of lower FC was observed in the presence of LH insults, while a contralateral pattern of increased FC was identified in the group with RH insults. Our findings suggest that LH stroke causes a severe and widespread pattern of reduction of brain networks' FC, presumably related to the impairment in their long-term recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilise Katsurayama
- Laboratory of Neuroimaging, Department of Neurology, University of Campinas, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Lucas Scárdua Silva
- Laboratory of Neuroimaging, Department of Neurology, University of Campinas, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Brunno Machado de Campos
- Laboratory of Neuroimaging, Department of Neurology, University of Campinas, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Wagner Mauad Avelar
- Laboratory of Neuroimaging, Department of Neurology, University of Campinas, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Fernando Cendes
- Laboratory of Neuroimaging, Department of Neurology, University of Campinas, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Clarissa Lin Yasuda
- Laboratory of Neuroimaging, Department of Neurology, University of Campinas, Cidade Universitária, Campinas, SP, 13083-970, Brazil.
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Duquette-Laplante F, Macaskill M, Jutras B, Jemel B, Koravand A. Brain functional connectivity in children with a mild traumatic brain injury: A scoping review. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. CHILD 2023:1-12. [PMID: 38100747 DOI: 10.1080/21622965.2023.2293248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The occurrence of mild traumatic brain injury(mTBI) is estimated at 0,2-0,3% cases annually. Following a mTBI, some children experience persistent symptoms, and functional connectivity(FC) changes may be implicated. However, characteristics of FC have not been widely described in this population. This scoping review aimed to identify and understand the impacts of mTBI on EEG-measured FC in children, provide an overview of the available literature, detail analysis techniques, and describe gaps in the research. METHODS PubMed, Web of Science, Medline, Embase, ProQuest and CINAHL were searched up to June 25, 2023, with the terms child, mTBI, EEG, FC, and their synonyms. Ten studies were identified. RESULTS Five studies reported significant differences between the mTBI group and controls. In addition to group differences, six studies reported significant variation over time. Brain Network Analysis(BNA), utilized in seven studies, was the primary FC analysis recorded. Two of the five studies that reported significant differences following mTBI utilized the BNA. The other three applied alternative analysis methods. DISCUSSION FC assessment based on EEG can identify some differences in children with mTBI. BNA was more useful in following changes over time. Further research is suggested, considering the limited age range and number of retrieved studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Duquette-Laplante
- Audiology and Speech Pathology Program, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- School of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
- Research Center, CHU Sainte-Justine, Montreal, Canada
| | - M Macaskill
- Centre de Recherche en Audiologie pédiatrique, Hôpital Necker, Paris, France
| | - B Jutras
- School of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
- Research Center, CHU Sainte-Justine, Montreal, Canada
| | - B Jemel
- School of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
- Research Laboratory in Neurosciences and Cognitive Electrophysiology, Research Center CIUSS-NIM, Hôpital Rivière des Prairies, Montréal, Canada
| | - A Koravand
- Audiology and Speech Pathology Program, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
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Parr JVV, Uiga L, Marshall B, Wood G. Soccer heading immediately alters brain function and brain-muscle communication. Front Hum Neurosci 2023; 17:1145700. [PMID: 37151902 PMCID: PMC10157247 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1145700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction There is growing evidence of a link between repetitive soccer heading and the increased incidence of neurodegenerative disease. Even a short bout of soccer heading has been shown to impair cognitive performance and disrupt movement control. However, a greater understanding of the mechanisms behind these immediate impairments is needed. The current study attempted to identify how a short bout of soccer heading alters brain function and brain-muscle communication during a movement task. Methods Sixty soccer players were exposed to either an acute bout (i.e., 20 balls thrown underarm) of soccer heading (n = 30) or a control condition where participants (n = 30) headed soccer balls in virtual reality (VR). Before and after heading, we measured cognitive performance on the King-Devick test, as well as electromyography (EMG), electroencephalography (EEG) and brain-muscle communication (i.e., corticomuscular coherence; CMC) during a force precision task. Results Following the heading protocol, the VR group improved their cognitive performance whereas the Heading group showed no change. Both groups displayed more precise force contractions at post-test. However, the VR group displayed elevated frontal theta activity and global increases in alpha and beta activity during the contraction task, whereas the Heading group did not. Contrary to our expectations, the Heading group displayed elevated CMC, whereas the VR group showed no change. Discussion Our findings indicate a short bout of soccer heading may impair cognitive function and disrupt the organization of efficient neural processes that typically accompany motor skill proficiency. Soccer heading also induced corticomuscular hyperconnectivity, which could represent compensatory brain-muscle communication and an inefficient allocation of increased task-related neuromuscular resources. These initial findings offer insights to the mechanisms behind the impairments experienced after a short bout of repetitive soccer heading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johnny V. V. Parr
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Johnny V. V. Parr,
| | - Liis Uiga
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Ben Marshall
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Greg Wood
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
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Shenoy Handiru V, Alivar A, Hoxha A, Saleh S, Suviseshamuthu ES, Yue GH, Allexandre D. Graph-theoretical analysis of EEG functional connectivity during balance perturbation in traumatic brain injury: A pilot study. Hum Brain Mapp 2021; 42:4427-4447. [PMID: 34312933 PMCID: PMC8410544 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.25554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) often results in balance impairment, increasing the risk of falls, and the chances of further injuries. However, the underlying neural mechanisms of postural control after TBI are not well understood. To this end, we conducted a pilot study to explore the neural mechanisms of unpredictable balance perturbations in 17 chronic TBI participants and 15 matched healthy controls (HC) using the EEG, MRI, and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data. As quantitative measures of the functional integration and segregation of the brain networks during the postural task, we computed the global graph-theoretic network measures (global efficiency and modularity) of brain functional connectivity derived from source-space EEG in different frequency bands. We observed that the TBI group showed a lower balance performance as measured by the center of pressure displacement during the task, and the Berg Balance Scale (BBS). They also showed reduced brain activation and connectivity during the balance task. Furthermore, the decrease in brain network segregation in alpha-band from baseline to task was smaller in TBI than HC. The DTI findings revealed widespread structural damage. In terms of the neural correlates, we observed a distinct role played by different frequency bands: theta-band modularity during the task was negatively correlated with the BBS in the TBI group; lower beta-band network connectivity was associated with the reduction in white matter structural integrity. Our future studies will focus on how postural training will modulate the functional brain networks in TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikram Shenoy Handiru
- Center for Mobility and Rehabilitation Engineering Research, Kessler Foundation, West Orange, New Jersey, USA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rutgers University New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - Alaleh Alivar
- Center for Mobility and Rehabilitation Engineering Research, Kessler Foundation, West Orange, New Jersey, USA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rutgers University New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - Armand Hoxha
- Center for Mobility and Rehabilitation Engineering Research, Kessler Foundation, West Orange, New Jersey, USA
| | - Soha Saleh
- Center for Mobility and Rehabilitation Engineering Research, Kessler Foundation, West Orange, New Jersey, USA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rutgers University New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - Easter S Suviseshamuthu
- Center for Mobility and Rehabilitation Engineering Research, Kessler Foundation, West Orange, New Jersey, USA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rutgers University New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - Guang H Yue
- Center for Mobility and Rehabilitation Engineering Research, Kessler Foundation, West Orange, New Jersey, USA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rutgers University New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - Didier Allexandre
- Center for Mobility and Rehabilitation Engineering Research, Kessler Foundation, West Orange, New Jersey, USA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rutgers University New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, USA
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Caccese JB, Santos FV, Yamaguchi FK, Buckley TA, Jeka JJ. Persistent Visual and Vestibular Impairments for Postural Control Following Concussion: A Cross-Sectional Study in University Students. Sports Med 2021; 51:2209-2220. [PMID: 33881749 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01472-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine how concussion may impair sensory processing for control of upright stance. METHODS Participants were recruited from a single university into 3 groups: 13 participants (8 women, 21 ± 3 years) between 2 weeks and 6 months post-injury who initiated a return-to-play progression (under physician management) by the time of testing (recent concussion group), 12 participants (7 women, 21 ± 1 years) with a history of concussion (concussion history group, > 1 year post-injury), and 26 participants (8 women, 22 ± 3 years) with no concussion history (control group). We assessed sensory reweighting by simultaneously perturbing participants' visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive systems and computed center of mass gain relative to each modality. The visual stimulus was a sinusoidal translation of the visual scene at 0.2 Hz, the vestibular stimulus was ± 1 mA binaural monopolar galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) at 0.36 Hz, the proprioceptive stimulus was Achilles' tendon vibration at 0.28 Hz. RESULTS The recent concussion (95% confidence interval 0.078-0.115, p = 0.001) and the concussion history (95% confidence interval 0.056-0.094, p = 0.038) groups had higher gains to the vestibular stimulus than the control group (95% confidence interval 0.040-0.066). The recent concussion (95% confidence interval 0.795-1.159, p = 0.002) and the concussion history (95% confidence interval 0.633-1.012, p = 0.018) groups had higher gains to the visual stimulus than the control group (95% confidence interval 0.494-0.752). There were no group differences in gains to the proprioceptive stimulus or in sensory reweighting. CONCLUSION Following concussion, participants responded more strongly to visual and vestibular stimuli during upright stance, suggesting they may have abnormal dependence on visual and vestibular feedback. These findings may indicate an area for targeted rehabilitation interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaclyn B Caccese
- School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, 453 W. 10th Avenue, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA.
| | | | - Felipe K Yamaguchi
- Department of Kinesiology & Applied Physiology and Interdisciplinary Biomechanics and Movement Science Program, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, 19713, USA
| | - Thomas A Buckley
- Department of Kinesiology & Applied Physiology and Interdisciplinary Biomechanics and Movement Science Program, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, 19713, USA
| | - John J Jeka
- Department of Kinesiology & Applied Physiology and Interdisciplinary Biomechanics and Movement Science Program, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, 19713, USA
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Krokhine SN, Ewers NP, Mangold KI, Boshra R, Lin CYA, Connolly JF. N2b Reflects the Cognitive Changes in Executive Functioning After Concussion: A Scoping Review. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 14:601370. [PMID: 33424568 PMCID: PMC7793768 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.601370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives: The N2b is an event-related potential (ERP) component thought to index higher-order executive function. While the impact of concussion on executive functioning is frequently discussed in the literature, limited research has been done on the role of N2b in evaluating executive functioning in patients with concussion. The aims of this review are to consolidate an understanding of the cognitive functions reflected by the N2b and to account for discrepancies in literature findings regarding the N2b and concussion. Methods: A scoping review was conducted on studies that used the N2b to measure cognitive functioning in healthy control populations, as well as in people with concussions. Results: Sixty-six articles that met inclusion criteria demonstrated that the N2b effectively represents stimulus-response conflict management, response selection, and response inhibition. However, the 19 included articles investigating head injury (using terms such as concussion, mild head injury, and mild traumatic brain injury) found widely varied results: some studies found the amplitude of the N2b to be increased in the concussion group, while others found it to be decreased or unchanged. Conclusion: Based on the available evidence, differences in the amplitude of the N2b have been linked to response selection, conflict, and inhibition deficits in concussion. However, due to large variations in methodology across studies, findings about the directionality of this effect remain inconclusive. The results of this review suggest that future research should be conducted with greater standardization and consistency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie N Krokhine
- Centre for Advanced Research in Experimental and Applied Linguistics (ARiEAL) Research Centre, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Nathalee P Ewers
- Centre for Advanced Research in Experimental and Applied Linguistics (ARiEAL) Research Centre, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Kiersten I Mangold
- Centre for Advanced Research in Experimental and Applied Linguistics (ARiEAL) Research Centre, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Neuroscience Graduate Program, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Rober Boshra
- Centre for Advanced Research in Experimental and Applied Linguistics (ARiEAL) Research Centre, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Chia-Yu A Lin
- Centre for Advanced Research in Experimental and Applied Linguistics (ARiEAL) Research Centre, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - John F Connolly
- Centre for Advanced Research in Experimental and Applied Linguistics (ARiEAL) Research Centre, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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