Predominance of soil vs root effect in rhizosphere microbiota reassembly

Microbial diversity and interactions: Synergistic effects and potential applications of Pseudomonas and Bacillus consortia

Microbial diversity and interactions in the rhizosphere play a crucial role in plant health and ecosystem functioning. Among the myriads of rhizosphere microbes, Pseudomonas and Bacillus are prominent players known for their multifaceted functionalities and beneficial effects on plant growth. The molecular mechanism of interspecies interactions between natural isolates of Bacillus and Pseudomonas in medium conditions is well understood, but the interaction between the two in vivo remains unclear. This paper focuses on the possible synergies between Pseudomonas and Bacillus associated in practical applications (such as recruiting beneficial microbes, cross-feeding and niche complementarity), and looks forward to the application prospects of the consortium in agriculture, human health and bioremediation. Through in-depth understanding of the interactions between Pseudomonas and Bacillus as well as their application prospects in various fields, this study is expected to provide a new theoretical basis and practical guidance for promoting the research and application of rhizosphere microbes.

The Impact of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria-Based Biostimulant Alone or in Combination with Commercial Inoculum on Tomato Native Rhizosphere Microbiota and Production: An Open-Field Trial

The agricultural sector is currently encountering significant challenges due to the effects of climate change, leading to negative consequences for crop productivity and global food security. In this context, traditional agricultural practices have been inadequate in addressing the fast-evolving challenges while maintaining environmental sustainability. A possible alternative to traditional agricultural management is represented by using beneficial micro-organisms that, once applied as bioinoculants, may enhance crop resilience and adaptability, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of environmental stressors and boosting productivity. Tomato is one of the most important crops worldwide, playing a central role in the human diet. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of a nitrogen-fixing bacterial-based biostimulant (Azospirillum sp., Azotobacter sp., and Rhizobium sp.) in combination or not with a commercial inoculum Micomix (Rhizoglomus irregulare, Funnelliformis mosseae, Funnelliformis caledonium, Bacillus licheniformis, and Bacillus mucilaginosus) (MYC) on the native rhizosphere communities and tomato production. Bacterial populations in the different samples were characterized using an environmental metabarcoding approach. The bioinocula effect on the native rhizosphere microbiota resulted in significant variation both in alpha and beta diversity and in a specific signature associated with the presence of biostimulants.

Plant species identity and plant-induced changes in soil physicochemistry-but not plant phylogeny or functional traits - shape the assembly of the root-associated soil microbiome

The root-associated soil microbiome contributes immensely to support plant health and performance against abiotic and biotic stressors. Understanding the processes that shape microbial assembly in root-associated soils is of interest in microbial ecology and plant health research. In this study, 37 plant species were grown in the same soil mixture for 10 months, whereupon the root-associated soil microbiome was assessed using amplicon sequencing. From this, the contribution of direct and indirect plant effects on microbial assembly was assessed. Plant species and plant-induced changes in soil physicochemistry were the most significant factors that accounted for bacterial and fungal community variation. Considering that all plants were grown in the same starting soil mixture, our results suggest that plants, in part, shape the assembly of their root-associated soil microbiome via their effects on soil physicochemistry. With the increase in phylogenetic ranking from plant species to class, we observed declines in the degree of community variation attributed to phylogenetic origin. That is, plant-microbe associations were unique to each plant species, but the phylogenetic associations between plant species were not important. We observed a large degree of residual variation (> 65%) not accounted for by any plant-related factors, which may be attributed to random community assembly.

Tomato growth stage modulates bacterial communities across different soil aggregate sizes and disease levels

Soil aggregates contain distinct physio-chemical properties across different size classes. These differences in micro-habitats support varied microbial communities and modulate the effect of plant on microbiome, which affect soil functions such as disease suppression. However, little is known about how the residents of different soil aggregate size classes are impacted by plants throughout their growth stages. Here, we examined how tomato plants impact soil aggregation and bacterial communities within different soil aggregate size classes. Moreover, we investigated whether aggregate size impacts the distribution of soil pathogen and their potential inhibitors. We collected samples from different tomato growth stages: before-planting, seedling, flowering, and fruiting stage. We measured bacterial density, community composition, and pathogen abundance using qPCR and 16 S rRNA gene sequencing. We found the development of tomato growth stages negatively impacted root-adhering soil aggregation, with a gradual decrease of large macro-aggregates (1-2 mm) and an increase of micro-aggregates (<0.25 mm). Additionally, changes in bacterial density and community composition varied across soil aggregate size classes. Furthermore, the pathogen exhibited a preference to micro-aggregates, while macro-aggregates hold a higher abundance of potential pathogen-inhibiting taxa and predicted antibiotic-associated genes. Our results indicate that the impacts of tomatoes on soil differ for different soil aggregate size classes throughout different plant growth stages, and plant pathogens and their potential inhibitors have different habitats within soil aggregate size classes. These findings highlight the importance of fine-scale heterogeneity of soil aggregate size classes in research on microbial ecology and agricultural sustainability, further research focuses on soil aggregates level could help identify candidate tax involved in suppressing pathogens in the virtual micro-habitats.

Effects of microbial agent application on the bacterial community in ginger rhizosphere soil under different planting years

Ginger is one of the important spice crops in the world. Due to the prevalence of ginger wilt disease and the lack of effective prevention and control methods, the planting area, total production and value have declined sharply, which have become a key factor restricting ginger industry development in China. Understanding the influence of microbial agents on the rhizosphere microbiota of ginger will facilitate developing novel technologies for the prevention and control of ginger wilt disease. In the new planting and continuous cropping ginger fields, using large-root ginger and microbial agents, two inoculation levels (inoculation and no inoculation) were designed, and high-throughput sequencing technology was used to study the bacterial community structure in the rhizosphere soil at mature stage of ginger. The results showed that newly planted ginger showed a significant yield advantage over continuous cropping ginger, with a yield increase of 39% to 56%, and the lowest ginger wilt disease index. The community structure at the phylum level of soil bacteria in each treatment was very similar to that in the control, but the abundance of some taxonomic units changed significantly. The four dominant phyla of bacteria in mature ginger rhizosphere soil were Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi, and Acidobacteria, accounting for 72.91% to 89.09% of the total. The microbial agent treatment of continuous cropping had beneficial microorganisms such as Acidobacteria and Gemmatimonadetes with abundances increased by 12.2% and 17.1%, respectively, compared to the control. The microbial inoculant treatment of newly planted ginger increased the abundance of Acidobacteria and Gemmatimonadetes by 34.4% and 10.7%, respectively, compared to the control. The composition of bacterial communities were affected by changes in soil properties. Redundancy analysis showed that the hydrolysable nitrogen, available phosphorus, available potassium, and organic matter were significantly related to the composition of soil bacterial communities. Therefore, the microbial agents can not only promote the proliferation of beneficial microorganisms in the continuous cropping soil but also further reshape the soil bacterial community structure by changing the soil physicochemical properties such as effective phosphorus. These results provided a reference for related research on the impact of ginger continuous cropping on soil environment and soil management improvement in ginger fields.

Tapping the rhizosphere metabolites for the prebiotic control of soil-borne bacterial wilt disease

Prebiotics are compounds that selectively stimulate the growth and activity of beneficial microorganisms. The use of prebiotics is a well-established strategy for managing human gut health. This concept can also be extended to plants where plant rhizosphere microbiomes can improve the nutrient acquisition and disease resistance. However, we lack effective strategies for choosing metabolites to elicit the desired impacts on plant health. In this study, we target the rhizosphere of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) suffering from wilt disease (caused by Ralstonia solanacearum) as source for potential prebiotic metabolites. We identify metabolites (ribose, lactic acid, xylose, mannose, maltose, gluconolactone, and ribitol) exclusively used by soil commensal bacteria (not positively correlated with R. solanacearum) but not efficiently used by the pathogen in vitro. Metabolites application in the soil with 1 µmol g^-1 soil effectively protects tomato and other Solanaceae crops, pepper (Capsicum annuum) and eggplant (Solanum melongena), from pathogen invasion. After adding prebiotics, the rhizosphere soil microbiome exhibits enrichment of pathways related to carbon metabolism and autotoxin degradation, which were driven by commensal microbes. Collectively, we propose a novel pathway for mining metabolites from the rhizosphere soil and their use as prebiotics to help control soil-borne bacterial wilt diseases.

Deciphering the mechanism of fungal pathogen-induced disease-suppressive soil

One model of a disease-suppressive soil predicts that the confrontation of plant with a phytopathogen can lead to the recruitment and accumulation of beneficial microorganisms. However, more information needs to be deciphered regarding which beneficial microbes become enriched, and how the disease suppression is achieved. Here, we conditioned soil by continuously growing eight generations of cucumber inoculated with Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cucumerinum in a split-root system. Disease incidence was found to decrease gradually upon pathogen infection accompanied with higher quantity of reactive oxygen species (ROS mainly OH^• ) in roots and accumulation of Bacillus and Sphingomonas. These key microbes were proven to protect the cucumber from pathogen infection by inducing high ROS level in the roots through enrichment of pathways, including a two-component system, a bacterial secretion system, and flagellar assembly revealed by metagenomics sequencing. Untargeted metabolomics analysis combined with in vitro application assays suggested that threonic acid and lysine were pivotal to recruit Bacillus and Sphingomonas. Collectively, our study deciphered a 'cry for help' case, wherein cucumber releases particular compounds to enrich beneficial microbes that raise the ROS level of host to prevent pathogen attack. More importantly, this may be one of the fundamental mechanisms underpinning disease-suppressive soil formation.

The microbial landscape in bioturbated mangrove sediment: A resource for promoting nature-based solutions for mangroves

Globally, soils and sediments are affected by the bioturbation activities of benthic species. The consequences of these activities are particularly impactful in intertidal sediment, which is generally anoxic and nutrient-poor. Mangrove intertidal sediments are of particular interest because, as the most productive forests and one of the most important stores of blue carbon, they provide global-scale ecosystem services. The mangrove sediment microbiome is fundamental for ecosystem functioning, influencing the efficiency of nutrient cycling and the abundance and distribution of key biological elements. Redox reactions in bioturbated sediment can be extremely complex, with one reaction creating a cascade effect on the succession of respiration pathways. This facilitates the overlap of different respiratory metabolisms important in the element cycles of the mangrove sediment, including carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and iron cycles, among others. Considering that all ecological functions and services provided by mangrove environments involve microorganisms, this work reviews the microbial roles in nutrient cycling in relation to bioturbation by animals and plants, the main mangrove ecosystem engineers. We highlight the diversity of bioturbating organisms and explore the diversity, dynamics and functions of the sediment microbiome, considering both the impacts of bioturbation. Finally, we review the growing evidence that bioturbation, through altering the sediment microbiome and environment, determining a 'halo effect', can ameliorate conditions for plant growth, highlighting the potential of the mangrove microbiome as a nature-based solution to sustain mangrove development and support the role of this ecosystem to deliver essential ecological services.

Partitioning the Effects of Soil Legacy and Pathogen Exposure Determining Soil Suppressiveness via Induced Systemic Resistance

Beneficial host-associated bacteria can assist plant protection against pathogens. In particular, specific microbes are able to induce plant systemic resistance. However, it remains largely elusive which specific microbial taxa and functions trigger plant immune responses associated with disease suppression. Here, we experimentally studied this by setting up two independent microcosm experiments that differed in the time at which plants were exposed to the pathogen and the soil legacy (i.e., soils with historically suppressive or conducive). Overall, we found soil legacy effects to have a major influence on disease suppression irrespective of the time prior to pathogen exposure. Rhizosphere bacterial communities of tomato plants were significantly different between the two soils, with potential beneficial strains occurring at higher relative abundances in the suppressive soil. Root transcriptome analysis revealed the soil legacy to induce differences in gene expression, most importantly, genes involved in the pathway of phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. Last, we found genes in the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathway to correlate with specific microbial taxa, including Gp6, Actinomarinicola, Niastella, Phaeodactylibacter, Longimicrobium, Bythopirellula, Brevundimonas, Ferruginivarius, Kushneria, Methylomarinovum, Pseudolabrys, Sphingobium, Sphingomonas, and Alterococcus. Taken together, our study points to the potential regulation of plant systemic resistance by specific microbial taxa, and the importance of soil legacy on disease incidence and eliciting plant-defense mechanisms.

Bacterial communities in co-cultured fish intestines and rice field soil irrigated with aquaculture wastewater

In some regions, integrated rice-fish farms have been developed to balance the needs of aquaculture wastewater discharge and rice field irrigation. In this type of aqua-agriculture system, soil is irrigated with aquaculture wastewater, and intestinal bacteria in cultured fish species likely impact soil bacteria through irrigation. However, little is known about the relationship between soil bacteria and intestinal bacteria in some carp species commonly co-cultured in some Asian regions. Therefore, we co-cultured five carp species in aquaculture ponds and used the aquaculture wastewater to irrigate rice fields for over 5 years, and then compared carp intestinal bacterial communities with rice field soil bacterial communities. The results from analysis of similarity and SourceTracker analysis showed that a low similarity (R = 0.7908, P = 0.001) and contribution (an average of 9.9% of bacterial genera) of intestinal bacteria to soil bacterial communities although 77.5% of soil bacterial genera were shared by intestinal bacteria. Our results also indicated that intestinal bacteria in the numerically dominant fish species in the co-culture system do not necessarily impact soil bacteria more significantly than those of less abundant carp species, and that intestinal bacterial communities in one single fish species may impact certain soil bacterial phyla more significantly than others. Our results provide a better understanding of the impact of aquaculture wastewater on rice fields and will be helpful for the development of this type of aqua-agriculture system.

Root exudate chemistry affects soil carbon mobilization via microbial community reassembly

Plant roots are one of the major mediators that allocate carbon captured from the atmosphere to soils as rhizodeposits, including root exudates. Although rhizodeposition regulates both microbial activity and the biogeochemical cycling of nutrients, the effects of particular exudate species on soil carbon fluxes and key rhizosphere microorganisms remain unclear. By combining high-throughput sequencing, q-PCR, and NanoSIMS analyses, we characterized the bacterial community structure, quantified total bacteria depending on root exudate chemistry, and analyzed the consequences on the mobility of mineral-protected carbon. Using well-controlled incubation experiments, we showed that the three most abundant groups of root exudates (amino acids, carboxylic acids, and sugars) have contrasting effects on the release of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and bioavailable Fe in an Ultisol through the disruption of organo-mineral associations and the alteration of bacterial communities, thus priming organic matter decomposition in the rhizosphere. High resolution (down to 50 nm) NanoSIMS images of mineral particles indicated that iron and silicon co-localized significantly more organic carbon following amino acid inputs than treatments without exudates or with carboxylic acids. The application of sugar strongly reduced microbial diversity without impacting soil carbon mobilization. Carboxylic acids increased the prevalence of Actinobacteria and facilitated carbon mobilization, whereas amino acid addition increased the abundances of Proteobacteria that prevented DOC release. In summary, root exudate functions are defined by their chemical composition that regulates bacterial community composition and, consequently, the biogeochemical cycling of carbon in the rhizosphere.

Beyond specialization: re-examining routes of host influence on symbiont evolution

Our understanding of host influence on microbial evolution has focused on symbiont specialization and the genomic streamlining that often accompanies it. However, a vast diversity of symbiotic lineages facultatively interact with hosts or associate with multiple hosts. Yet, there are no clear expectations for how host association influences the niche of these symbionts or their evolution. Here, we discuss how weak or variable selection on microbial symbiotic associations, horizontal transmission, and low costs of adaptation to novel host habitats are predicted to promote the expansion or maintenance of microbial niches. This broad perspective will aid in developing better and more general predictions for evolution in microbial symbioses.

Diversity of Rhizo-Bacteriome of Crocus sativus Grown at Various Geographical Locations and Cataloging of Putative PGPRs

Earlier plant growth promoting rhizo-bacteria (PGPRs) were isolated from the plants, by cultivation based techniques and the interaction was mostly thought to be bilateral. The routine bilateral study, with no information on the associated microbiome, could be one of the reasons for the limited success of PGPRs in the field conditions. Keeping in view the role of PGPRs in rhizo-bacteriome on the growth and production of plant, the present study was aimed at studying the diversity of the rhizo-bacteriome of saffron grown across three geographical locations namely Kashmir, Kishtwar and Bengaluru. Variation in the rhizo-bacteriome of saffron growing across 10 different sites from 3 geographical locations was studied using 16S rDNA amplicon metagenomic sequencing. 16 bacterial phyla, 261 genera and 73 bacterial species were cataloged from all the rhizosphere samples. Proteobacteria was a dominant phylum in all the rhizosphere samples. Rhizo-bacteriome of saffron grown in Kishtwar was found to be significantly different from the rhizo-bacteriome of saffron grown in Kashmir and Bengaluru. Interestingly, the rhizo-bacteriome of saffron grown in Bengaluru was very similar to the saffron grown in Kashmir, thereby indicating that the rhizo-bacteriome in saffron is “plant driven” as the corm sown in Bengaluru were from Kashmir. Despite variation in rhizo-bacteriome, core rhizo-bacteriome in saffron was identified that was represented by 53 genera and eight bacterial species belonging to 11 phyla irrespective of their geographical distribution. In addition, 21 PGPRs were reported for the first time from the saffron rhizosphere. The high yielding saffron field Wuyan was found to have the highest number of PGPRs; this indicates that the presence of PGPR is important for yield enhancement than diversity. The two PGPR Rhizobium leguminosarum and Luteibacter rhizovicinus were reported from all the locations except Kishtwar that had escaped isolation in our previous attempts using cultivation based techniques. It is being proposed instead of going for random isolation and screening for PGPRs from plant rhizosphere, an alternate strategy using metagenomic cataloging of the rhizo-bacteriome community and cultivation of the dominant PGPR should be undertaken. This strategy will help in the selection of dominant PGPRs, specific to the plant in question.

Flavobacterium panici sp. nov. isolated from the rhizosphere of the switchgrass Panicum virgatum

A Gram-staining-negative non endospore-forming strain, PXU-55^T, was isolated from the rhizosphere of the switchgrass Panicum virgatum and studied in detail to determine its taxonomic position. The results of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis indicated that the isolate represented a member of the genus Flavobacterium. The isolate shared highest 16S rRNA gene sequence similarities with the type strains of Flavobacterium chungangense (98.78 %) and Flavobacterium chilense (98.64 %). The average nucleotide identity (ANI) and in silico DNA-DNA hybridization (isDDH) values between the PXU-55^T genome assembly and the ones of the most closely related type strains of species of the genus Flavobacterium were 87.3 and 31.9% (Flavobacterium defluvii), and 86.1 and 29.9% (Flavobacterium johnsoniae). Menaquinone MK-6 was the major respiratory quinone. As major polar lipids, phosphatidylethanolamine, an ornithine lipid and the unidentified polar lipids L2, L3 and L4 lacking a functional group were found. Moderate to minor amounts of another ornithine lipid, the unidentified lipid L1 and a glycolipid were present, as well. The major polyamine is sym-homospermidine. The fatty acid profiles contained major amounts of iso-C_15:0, iso-C_15:0 3-OH, iso-C_17:0 3-OH, C_15:0, summed feature 3 (C_16:1ω7c and/or iso-C_15:0 2-OH) and various hydroxylated fatty acids in smaller amounts, among them iso C_16:0 3-OH, C_16:0 3-OH and C_15:0 3-OH, which supported the classification of the isolate as a member of the genus Flavobacterium. Physiological and biochemical characterisation and ANI calculations with the type strains of the most closely related species allowed a clear phenotypic and genotypic differentiation of the strain. For this reason, we propose that strain PXU-55^T (=CIP 111646^T=CCM 8914^T) represents a novel species with the name Flavobacterium panici sp. nov.

High abundance of Ralstonia solanacearum changed tomato rhizosphere microbiome and metabolome

BACKGROUND

Rhizosphere microbiome is dynamic and influenced by environment factors surrounded including pathogen invasion. We studied the effects of Ralstonia solanacearum pathogen abundance on rhizosphere microbiome and metabolome by using high throughput sequencing and GC-MS technology.

RESULTS

There is significant difference between two rhizosphere bacterial communities of higher or lower pathogen abundance, and this difference of microbiomes was significant even ignoring the existence of pathogen. Higher pathogen abundance decreased the alpha diversity of rhizosphere bacterial community as well as connections in co-occurrence networks. Several bacterial groups such as Bacillus and Chitinophaga were negatively related to the pathogen abundance. The GC-MS analysis revealed significantly different metabolomes in two groups of rhizosphere soils, i.e., the rhizosphere soil of lower harbored more sugars such as fructose, sucrose and melibiose than that in high pathogen abundance.

CONCLUSIONS

The dissimilar metabolomes in two rhizosphere soils likely explained the difference of bacterial communities with Mantel test. Bacillus and Chitinophaga as well as sugar compounds negatively correlated with high abundance of pathogen indicated their potential biocontrol ability.