Social exchanges and subjective well-being: do sources of positive and negative exchanges matter?

Community Participation and Subjective Well-Being of Older Adults: The Roles of Sense of Community and Neuroticism

Participation in community affairs and activities is beneficial to the mental health of older adults. The current study attempted to confirm the mediating role of sense of community (SoC) between community participation (CP) and subjective well-being (SWB), and the moderating role of neuroticism between CP and SoC. A total of 465 older adults aged ≥65 years from China participated in both two-wave online surveys. The self-developed Community Participation questionnaire, the SoC scale, and the Neuroticism subscale were used to assess CP, SoC, and neuroticism, respectively. The four indicators of SWB were assessed by the Satisfaction with Life Scale, Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule, and the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression scale. The results revealed that CP was associated with three indicators of SWB including life satisfaction, positive affect, and depressive symptoms, SoC mediated the above associations, and neuroticism negatively moderated the association between CP and SoC, after controlling for age, sex, education, spouse status, monthly income, and physical health. CP enhances older adults’ SWB through increasing their SoC. When compared to those older adults with a higher score of neuroticism, the enhancing effect of CP on SoC is stronger for those with lower scores of neuroticism.

Grief and growth among Chinese parents who lost their only child: the role of positive and negative experiences of social support from different sources

BACKGROUND

In China, bereaved parents who have lost their only child are known as Shidu parents, and they tend to present high levels of prolonged grief reactions. To date, a widespread focus has been placed on positive social support, while potential negative experiences have been relatively neglected. Additionally, the role of social support from different sources (i.e. close family members [partner, siblings, grandchildren], peers, and others [relatives, friends, colleagues]) has not been examined thoroughly.

OBJECTIVE

The present study investigated whether social support from different sources has a differential impact on postloss adaptation (i.e. prolonged grief and growth). The loss-orientated and restoration-orientated coping strategies of the dual process model were also tested for their mediating roles.

METHODS

A total of 277 Chinese Shidu parents were recruited to complete a series of questionnaires including social support from different sources, prolonged grief symptoms, posttraumatic growth, and dual process coping strategies. Correlation analyses, paired sample t tests and structural equation modelling were conducted.

RESULTS

More positive support were related to less prolonged grief symptoms and more posttraumatic growth, while more negative support was only related to more prolonged grief. Positive support from close family members and others was significantly related to prolonged grief/growth, and negative support from these sources was significantly positively associated with prolonged grief. Positive or negative support from people who shared a similar experience was unrelated to prolonged grief/growth. Positive and negative support were related to prolonged grief and growth through loss-oriented coping strategies.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the present study indicated that positive and negative support experiences from different sources functioned differently in the recovery of Chinese Shidu parents and that loss-oriented coping played a mediating role. These findings highlight the importance of differentiating social support by traits in coping with grief and the crucial mediating role of loss-oriented coping.

HIGHLIGHTS

More positive support correlated with less prolonged grief and more growth, while more negative support correlated with more prolonged grief.Support from family members and friends was more potent than that from peers.Social Support correlated with prolonged grief/growth through loss-oriented coping.

Typology of pain coping and associations with physical health, mental health, and pain profiles in Hong Kong Chinese older adults

OBJECTIVES

To identify typology of pain coping in older adults and to see whether the coping types or patterns were associated with pain, physical health, and mental health outcomes.

METHODS

Six hundred and fifty six Chinese older adults were recruited on a convenience basis from social centers in Hong Kong. A 14-item Brief Pain Coping Scale (BPCS) was constructed on the basis of the Chronic Pain Coping Inventory. Outcome measures included pain intensity, pain disability, pain-related cognitions, depressive symptoms, health-related quality of life, and health and physical functioning (in terms of chronic illnesses, basic and instrumental activities of daily living, and self-rated health). Coping typology was identified using latent class analysis.

RESULTS

A 3-class solution based on BPCS provided the best fit to data. Class 1 used almost all coping strategies on a daily basis, Class 2 used the strategies less frequently, whereas Class 3 adopted few strategies. Yet, Class 3 was basically indistinguishable from Class 1 across the outcome variables, even though the participants had more chronic illnesses and poorer instrumental activities of daily living than those in Class 1. Class 2, however, had the poorest outcome profiles, reporting more pain, disability, depression, and health-related quality of life than the other two classes. The differences in coping could not be explained by the differential effectiveness of coping strategies across groups.

CONCLUSION

The way coping was used, and the way it was related to pain, mood, health and functioning outcomes, varied substantially across individuals. Implications for coping skills interventions are discussed.

The Effect of Negative Aging Self-Stereotypes on Satisfaction With Social Support

OBJECTIVES

Previous studies have demonstrated a relationship between negative age self-stereotypes and social support satisfaction. This study examined whether negative age stereotype plays a causal role, and whether health anxiety is a possible mediator, in this relationship.

METHODS

A total of 114 Chinese older persons were randomly assigned into three experimental conditions. In two of the conditions, participants were primed with either negative or positive age stereotypes using a sentence unscrambling task, before responding to measures of self-perception of aging, health anxiety, and satisfaction with family and nonfamily support. Those in the control condition responded to the same questions without priming.

RESULTS

Main effects of priming were found across the board except for satisfaction with nonfamily support. In general, participants primed with negative age stereotypes reported more negative self-perception of aging, higher health anxiety, and lower satisfaction with family support, compared with control or those primed with positive age stereotypes. However, the effect on family support satisfaction could not be explained by concomitant experimental effect on health anxiety.

DISCUSSION

The central role of the family as a support provider might be the reason why the activation of negative age stereotypes led to less satisfaction with family, but not nonfamily.

Close Relationships and Health: The Interactive Effect of Positive and Negative Aspects

Most health research focuses on the independent associations of positive or negative aspects of close relationships with health outcomes. A small but growing literature has begun to examine interactive effects of positive and negative aspects. These interactive effects frequently predict health independently or above-and-beyond main effects of either the positive or the negative aspects, suggesting unique relationship processes or emergent features of these close relationship patterns. Our goal in this review is to lay out the existing approaches to studying the interactive effects of positive and negative aspects of close relationships, and to review available evidence linking these interactive effects to health outcomes. We conclude by discussing important unresolved issues and highlighting critical directions for future research.

Conflict with Mothers and Siblings During Caregiving: Differential Costs for Black and White Adult Children

Objectives

Family conflict has been found to play a role in caregivers' psychological well-being; however, few studies have considered race differences in the prevalence and consequences of caregiving conflict. In this paper, we use mixed-methods to examine differences in the experiences of conflict among Black and White adult children caring for mothers.

Methods

Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from 279 adult-child caregivers (213 White; 66 Black).

Results

Multilevel modeling revealed that conflict with mothers predicted depressive symptoms among Black, but not White caregivers, whereas there were not statistically significant race differences in the effects of conflict with siblings. However within-model tests showed stronger effects of conflict with mothers than siblings for Black caregivers, and stronger effects of conflict with siblings than mothers for White caregivers. Qualitative data revealed that Black caregivers' conflict with mothers resulted from their inability to meet their mothers' needs, inducing concern and sadness. White children's conflict stemmed from mothers' resistance to unwanted assistance and requests for support that children considered excessive, evoking irritation and frustration.

Discussion

This study highlights ways in which the experiences of caregivers reflect broader patterns of differences between Black and White families in both intergenerational cohesion and health disparities in midlife.

Life satisfaction and inflammation in couples: an actor-partner analysis

Life satisfaction has been linked to lower cardiovascular disease mortality. However, much less is known about the biological mechanisms linking life satisfaction to physical health. In addition, the dyadic context of life satisfaction has not been considered despite increasing evidence that partners influence each other in health-relevant ways. These questions were addressed with 94 married couples who completed measures of life satisfaction and had their blood drawn for determination of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP). Actor-partner models showed that higher actor levels of life satisfaction predicted lower levels of IL-6 and CRP (p's < .05), whereas partner levels of life satisfaction did not predict any measure of inflammation. The actor results were not mediated by marital satisfaction or health behaviors. Finally, no actor × partner interactions were significant and these links were not moderated by marital satisfaction. These data highlight inflammation as a potentially important biological mechanism linking actor reports of life satisfaction to lower cardiovascular mortality.

Self-Perception of Aging and Satisfaction With Children's Support

Objectives

Those with self-beliefs in negative aging may desire a stronger support network to buffer against potential threats and may hence see their current network as less than adequate. This study investigated whether negative self-perception of aging is associated with increased dissatisfaction with children's support.

Method

Six hundred and forty Chinese older adults with at least one child and a total of 2,108 adult children rated the degree of support received from each child individually and the degree to which it met their expectation. Additionally, the participants responded to measures of self-perception of aging (both positive and negative), neuroticism, instrumental activities of daily living, chronic illnesses, financial strain, and living status. The multilevel dataset was analyzed using mixed-effects regression.

Results

Individuals who had a more negative self-perception of aging, who were younger, who lived alone, and who had fewer children provided lower support satisfaction ratings after support received from children was controlled for. Positive self-perception of aging was unrelated to support satisfaction. Neuroticism did not account for the relationship between negative self-perception of aging and support satisfaction.

Discussion

A negative self-perception of aging may create vulnerability to intergenerational tension that puts older people at risk of adverse psychological and physical health outcomes.

Psychological vulnerability of widowhood: financial strain, social engagement and worry about having no care-giver as mediators and moderators

This study examined how financial strain, worry about having no care-giver and social engagement modify the association between widowhood and depressive symptoms among older adults in China. Using national representative data from older adults in China in 2006, we ran structural equation models and ordinary least square regressions to investigate the mediating and moderating effects of financial strain, worry about having no care-giver and social engagement on the association between widowhood and depressive symptoms. All three variables significantly mediated the association between widowhood and depressive symptoms. Compared to their married counterparts, widowed older adults showed more worry about having no care-giver, increased financial strain and lower social engagement, which were significantly associated with depressive symptoms. Higher level of worry about having no care-giver and lower social engagement significantly exacerbated the adverse effects of widowhood on depressive symptoms in the moderation analyses. Our finding of mediating effects suggests that widowhood is negatively related to psychological wellbeing via financial strain, social engagement and care resources. The results regarding moderating effects suggest that alleviating worry about having no care-giver and increasing social engagement may buffer the deleterious effect of widowhood on psychological wellbeing in later life.

The Role of Social Support in Elder Financial Exploitation Using a Community Sample

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Social support is known to be an important protective factor against elder financial exploitation (FE), yet few empirical studies have examined the relationship between FE and distinct components of social support. Perceived social support, social network size, and interactions with close network members (positive and negative) were measured separately and tested as potential predictors of FE.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Three hundred and ninety-five community-dwelling adults aged 60 and older were recruited to complete a 90-minute survey and interview. We used OLS regression to examine the role of social support in FE. Other risk factors associated with FE including dependency, poor physical health, depression, cognition, and demographic characteristics were included as potential predictors.

RESULTS

Negative interactions with close network members predicted FE, and remained predictive when all other variables and social support factors were included in the model. Other social support factors were not unique predictors of FE.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Negative social interactions with close network members are important to assess and consider in FE prevention and intervention programs; relationships between social interactions and other risk factors warrant further attention.

Social networks and quality of life of elderly persons: a review and critical analysis of literature

Abstract Several studies have documented the importance of social networks for quality of life (QL) in old age. This article presents a review and critical analysis of the literature on the relationship between the social networks of the elderly and their QL/well-being. A survey using interdisciplinary search engines [Web of Knowledge, Scopus, Scholar Google, Science Direct and Online Knowledge Library (b-on)], followed by an in-depth examination of the 37 documents subsequently identified, selected based on content, the geographical context of the study and its publication date, suggested a number of tendencies. In the first place, networks of friends have a greater impact on the QL/well-being of elderly persons than family networks. Secondly, the positive effect of the existence of more than one type of relationship was revealed (such as simultaneous friendships and family relationships). Finally, literature suggests emotional closeness has a positive impact on QL/well-being. The present study exposed the lack of longitudinal studies into the causality between network characteristics and QL/well-being. It also revealed the lack of research on the relationship between social networks and QL/well-being in elderly persons living alone. One problematic aspect relates to the fact that few studies provide a definition of the QL measures they adopt, or the rationale behind the manner of their operationalization of the concept.

The Association Between Social Capital and Depression Among Chinese Older Adults Living in Public Housing

Social capital is a critical resource for physical and mental health among older adults, but few studies have investigated this relationship in Chinese populations, and specifically among those with low socioeconomic status. This study examined the association between depression and cognitive social capital (reciprocity and trust) and structural social capital (social participation) in a community sample of older adults living in public housing in Macau (SAR), China (N = 366). Multivariable linear regressions estimated the associations between dimensions of social capital and depression, while adjusting for potential confounders. Significant inverse associations were found between reciprocity and trust and depression. No association was found between social participation and depression. Poor self-reported health was a robust correlate of depression in all models tested. Future studies are needed to evaluate whether enhancing social capital may reduce depression among Chinese older adults living in poverty.

Young Adults' Provision of Support to Middle-Aged Parents

OBJECTIVES

Middle-aged adults often provide support to aging parents, but researchers know little about support that young adults provide middle-aged parents. This study examined support that young adults provide parents and explanations for that support from both offspring's and parents' perspectives.

METHOD

Young adults (n = 515, mean age = 22.34) and their parents (n = 364, mean age = 50.09) from the Family Exchanges Study reported support that offspring provide parents. Participants also reported parental personal problems, parental disability status, relationship quality, and support that parents provide offspring.

RESULTS

Offspring provided parents with emotional support and listening more often than other forms of support. Offspring reported providing more frequent support than parents reported receiving. We examined factors associated with support using multilevel models. Both offspring and parents reported more frequent support provided to parents when they had higher quality relationships and when parents gave more frequent support to offspring. Offspring (but not parents) reported providing more frequent support to parents when parents were disabled.

DISCUSSION

Findings are consistent with solidarity theory, which suggests that high-quality relationships may explain support. The concept of self-enhancement and generativity in middle-aged parents may explain the intergenerational differences in the association between parental disability and support.

A support network typology for application in older populations with a preponderance of multigenerational households

This paper considers the support networks of older people in populations with a preponderance of multigenerational households and examines the most vulnerable network types in terms of loneliness and isolation. Current common typologies of support networks may not be sensitive to differences within and between different cultures. This paper uses cross-sectional data drawn from 590 elders (Gujaratis, Punjabis and Sylhetis) living in the United Kingdom and South Asia. Six variables were used in K-means cluster analysis to establish a new network typology. Two logistic regression models using loneliness and isolation as dependent variables assessed the contribution of the new network type to wellbeing. Four support networks were identified: ‘Multigenerational Households: Older Integrated Networks’, ‘Multigenerational Households: Younger Family Networks’, ‘Family and Friends Integrated Networks’ and ‘Non-kin Restricted Networks’. Older South Asians with ‘Non-kin Restricted Networks’ were more likely to be lonely and isolated compared to others. Using network typologies developed with individualistically oriented cultures, distributions are skewed towards more robust network types and could underestimate the support needs of older people from familistic cultures, who may be isolated and lonely and with limited informal sources of help. The new typology identifies different network types within multigenerational households, identifies a greater proportion of older people with vulnerable networks and could positively contribute to service planning.

Defining successful aging: the need to distinguish pathways from outcomes

Motivated by a vision for a “new gerontology” that focuses on optimal functioning rather than losses and declines, Rowe and Kahn (1987) argued that many of the age-related declines that define usual aging are due to modifiable factors such as diet, exercise, personal habits such as smoking, and psychosocial factors. Thus, individuals may engage in lifestyle modifications to avoid diseases and, consequently, enhance their chance of aging well. Three domains of outcomes were said to jointly define successful aging: (a) low probability of disease and disease-related disability, (b) high cognitive and physical functioning, and (c) engagement with life (namely in the form of social connectedness and productive activities; Rowe and Kahn, 1997). All three criteria are meant to be relative (i.e. without absolute thresholds), although subsequent studies tend to adopt a threshold approach (see Depp and Jeste, 2006). The three criteria are somewhat hierarchical, in that avoiding diseases (and associated risk factors) makes high physical and cognitive functioning possible, which in turn enables the individual to engage in social and productive activities (Rowe and Kahn, 1997). However, remaining free of disease/disability and maintaining high physical and cognitive functioning are less likely as one ages, whereas participation in social and even productive activities may not be affected until significant physical and cognitive declines have occurred (McLaughlin et al., 2010; Yaffe et al., 2010; Hsu and Jones, 2012).

Age differences in trust: an investigation across 38 countries

OBJECTIVE

Population aging is a global challenge in the 21st century. As social relationships contribute significantly to older adults' well-being and trust lays the foundation of constructive social interactions, it is theoretically and practically significant to examine age differences in trust in a worldwide sample.

METHOD

The current study examined age differences in generalized trust and trust toward family members, friends, neighbors, and strangers, using data from the World Value Survey based on 57,497 individuals from 38 countries.

RESULTS

Age was positively related to generalized trust and trust toward the four target groups across the 38 countries. Age differences in trust toward friends, neighbors, and strangers were also moderated by contextual factors (i.e., income inequality, developing status, and individualism).

DISCUSSION

The results suggest that, across countries, enhancing trust toward others may be one mechanism through which older adults maintain emotional connectedness with others. Future studies are encouraged to investigate the mechanism underlying the age differences in trust.