Chronological age in relation to attitudinal judgments: an experimental analysis

Determinants of Ageism against Older Adults: A Systematic Review

Ageism is a widespread phenomenon and constitutes a significant threat to older people's well-being. Identifying the factors contributing to ageism is critical to inform policies that minimise its societal impact. In this systematic review, we gathered and summarised empirical studies exploring the key determinants of ageism against older people for a period of over forty years (1970-2017). A comprehensive search using fourteen databases identified all published records related to the umbrella concept of "ageism". Reviewers independently screened the final pool to identify all papers focusing on determinants, according to a predefined list of inclusion and exclusion criteria. All relevant information was extracted and summarised following a narrative synthesis approach. A total of 199 papers were included in this review. We identified a total of 14 determinants as robustly associated with ageism. Of these, 13 have an effect on other-directed ageism, and one on self-directed ageism. The quality of contact with older people and the positive or negative presentation of older people to others emerged as the most robust determinants of other-directed ageism; self-directed ageism is mostly determined by older adults' health status. Given the correlational nature of most studies included in this review, inferences on causality should be made cautiously.

Beliefs, Attitudes, and Stereotypes about Old People

The study of beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes about the old is impeded by a number of conceptual and methodological difficulties. These are discussed, and possible future alternative directions are outlined. Some of the major sources of difficulty include confusion between attitudes and beliefs, the neglect of attitude-behavior relations, the discrepant outcomes generated by within-Ss and between-Ss designs in the person-perception paradigm, and the inherent defects in generalized attitude scales. There is good reason to believe that investigators in the present domain are unaware of the degree to which their empirical outcomes reflect the specific methods employed rather than the construct under study. Greater methodological awareness and a more theoretical orientation are deemed essential to future progress in the field.

Attitudes toward the Aged

A review of past research shows that negative stereotypes and attitudes about the aged are widespread. We need theoretically oriented research to specify what determines the stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminations against the aged. This research should be based on probability samples and use scales tested for reliability and validity. In order to reduce ageism and thus improve the quality of life among our elders, controlled experiments are needed to determine which methods of reducing ageism are most effective and efficient.

Judgments about Stereotypes of the Elderly

In this study, 125 adults in three age groups (young, middle-aged, and elderly) rated the typicality and approximate age of individuals representing 11 stereotypes of the elderly. Participants indicated their attitudes toward the individuals on a set of bipolar adjective scales. Attitude results conformed to the pattern predicted. Attitudes toward individual stereotypes varied according to the valence of each stereotype rather than participant age. Likewise, age judgments varied with the valence of the stereotype. Participants of all ages chose the older age ranges for the more negative stereotypes and younger age ranges for the positive stereotypes. Finally, elderly participants gave lower typicality ratings to the stereotypes than those in the other two age groups, although those in all age groups ordered the stereotypes similarly in terms of their typicality. Results are discussed in terms of their relationship to the cognitive representations of aging held by those in the three age groups.

Youth's Attitudes Toward the Elderly

This paper examines the attitudes of 35 male and 122 female college students toward six target groups of elderly individuals: males and females aged 65-74, 75-99 and 100 or older. A twenty-item semantic differential scale was used. Findings support the conclusion that the elderly are perceived as a heterogeneous group with age being an important discriminator, and with gender being less potent but, nevertheless, important. Older target groups were perceived less favorably than younger target groups, but actual values of attitude scores indicate that the least favorable means were in a neutral affect range rather than the more extreme negative range of possible scores. Finally, the effects of several characteristics of respondents on attitudes toward the elderly were examined. Only modest differences were found, suggesting that perceived differences between target groups are widely shared. Implications are discussed.

Attitudes of Youth Toward Known and General Target Elderly

Half of a sample of 275 high school and college students rated "generalized"elderly targets, described only by gender and age, and half rated known elderly. Known elderly were rated more positively than generalized elderly. Within the generalized group, younger targets were rated more favorably than older targets and females more positively than males. This pattern was not replicated in the known target group. The results suggest that given the opportunity, youths use information other than gender and age to evaluate the elderly, but in the absence of additional information, stereotypes of elderly emerge in attitudes of youths toward the elderly.

Attitudes toward younger and older adults: The German Aging Semantic Differential

The present study used the German Aging Semantic Differential (ASD) to assess attitudes toward younger and older adults in a heterogeneous sample of n = 151 younger and n = 143 older adults. The questionnaire was administered in two versions, one referring to the evaluation of younger adults, the other to the evaluation of older adults. Multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis replicated the four-factor solution reported in the literature. Younger compared to older adults were rated as higher in terms of instrumentality (i.e., more active, adaptive to change) and integrity (i.e., more personally satisfied, at peace with oneself), whereas older adults were described as more autonomous and self-sufficient than younger adults. Younger participants reported more negative attitudes toward younger and older adults in some of the factors than did older participants. Structural equation modeling furthermore showed that attitudes correlated with personality characteristics and positive and negative affect, in that more agreeable, extraverted, and positively tempered participants reported less negative attitudes toward younger and older adults. Results are discussed in the context of multidimensional assessment of age stereotypes.

L’âgisme : Adaptation française d’une mesure et test d’un modèle structural des effets de l’empathie, l’orientation à la dominance sociale et le dogmatisme sur l’âgisme

This article presents two studies dealing with ageism. The objective of the first study was to adapt to French language and validate the Fraboni of Ageism Scale-Revised (FSA-R) which contains 23 items, while the objective of the second study was to test a structural model containing ageism as measured by the FSA-R and the “Big Three”: empathy, social dominance orientation, and dogmatism, controlled for by sex and age. The results of the first study (n = 323) generated a version of the FSA-R comprising 14 items, of which the psychometric properties were very satisfactory. Using structural equation modelling and bootstrap procedure, the results of the second study (n = 284) showed a direct negative and significant effect of empathy on agism. They also showed that this negative effect was mediated by dogmatism and social dominance orientation, which both exerted a positive effect on ageism.

The multidimensional nature of ageism: construct validity and group differences

The authors investigated the factor structure and construct validity of the Fraboni Scale of Ageism and the age and gender differences in ageism scores. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the multidimensional nature of FSA scores and generally corroborated the initial factor structure reported by M. Fraboni, with some notable exceptions. Essentially, the present findings were aligned with theoretical models of ageism that emphasize both cognitive facets and affective facets. That is, on the basis of their factor analytic findings, the authors redefined Fraboni's original factors of Antilocution, Avoidance, and Discrimination as Stereotypes, Separation, and Affective Attitudes, respectively, because of the clustering of items within factors. The revised 3-factor structure accounted for 36.4% of the variance in FSA scores. FSA factor scores significantly related to other scores from other measures of age-related attitudes, with higher correlations among factors that were similar in terms of their cognitive nature versus their affective nature. Finally, younger individuals and men had significantly higher ageism scores on the FSA than older individuals and women. The authors discussed the importance of adequately assessing ageism, with particular emphasis devoted to the understanding of age bias.

Nurses' use of restraints and their attitudes toward restraint use and the elderly in an acute care setting

A descriptive correlation study was conducted in an acute-care hospital to explore the relationship between nurses' use of restraints and their attitudes toward restraint use and the elderly. A total of 201 nurses returned a questionnaire that collected demographic information and included two research instruments: (i) Perceptions of Restraint Use Questionnaire and (ii) Attitudes toward the Aged Semantic Differential. Results showed slightly positive attitudes towards the elderly and toward the use of restraints, although there was no correlation between scores on the two scales. Furthermore, nurses' attitudes did not predict their self-reported use of restraints.

Age stereotyping: are we oversimplifying the phenomenon?

This study investigates the use of age stereotypes in evaluating individuals' behavior in context-specific situations. One hundred university students assessed young male, young female, old male, and old female characters in four vignettes using the Rosencranz and McNevin Semantic Differential. The data revealed limited but conflicting evidence of the use of stereotypes when the stimuli portrayed target characters in lifelike situations rather than in an experimental vacuum. It is argued that while stereotyping can occur in specific contexts, its form is greatly influenced by other aspects of the situation. The need to reconceptualize the notion of stereotypes of the elderly is discussed, and a shift in emphasis toward the analysis of subgroup stereotypes as opposed to one consistent global stereotype of old age is urged.

Attitudes and perceptions about the elderly: current and future perspectives

Research on attitudes and perceptions of the aged is critically reviewed. Problems with early survey research methods such as lack of generalizability, susceptibility to demand characteristics, and inattention to psychometric quality are discussed. Recent studies are examined in terms of characteristics of the stimuli and contexts, and characteristics of the perceivers employed in them. Methodological and conceptual issues in these three categories are used to organize the body of research that exists. Suggestions are made for future research in which the use of multiple measures in specific contexts is emphasized.

A comparative factor analysis of attitudes toward societal relations of the elderly

The major objectives of this study were to explore the factorial dimensionality of forty-two additudinal items designed to measure attitudes concerning old people, and to compare these factor structures in two groups. Respondents were divided into a younger group (370 participants aged 30-65) and an older group (337 participants aged 70 and 75). Factor analyses were run independently for each group, providing obliquely rotated factors. Six pairs of factors were judged to be congruent and sufficiently reliable: Work, Welfare, Social Work, Dwelling, Gatherings, and Administratorship. One postulated factor emerged in the older group alone and was named Housekeeping, the conceptual counterpart of which split into two conjugate factors in the younger group. Second-order factor analyses yielded two comparable sets of three second-order factors: Social Activities and Self-Care Ability, whereas the third factor connected high welfare with age-segregated dwelling (and low welfare with age-integration).