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Hawkins RD, Kuo CH, Robinson C. Young adults' views on the mechanisms underpinning the impact of pets on symptoms of anxiety and depression. Front Psychiatry 2024; 15:1355317. [PMID: 38425998 PMCID: PMC10902138 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1355317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Emerging adulthood is considered a peak age for the onset of mental health difficulties with approximately 75% of mental health disorders being diagnosed during this developmental period. Companion animals confer both risk and benefits to mental health yet the potential underpinning mechanisms which explain such impacts are not fully understood. This study aimed to gather an in-depth understanding of young adults' lived experience of how their companion dogs and cats may impact their mental health symptoms and the perceived mechanisms which explain their effects. Methods Semi-structured interviews were carried out with 16 young adults aged 18-26 years, from the United Kingdom, who either had a companion dog, cat, or both. All participants had difficulties with anxiety and or depression, and 12 had received a formal diagnosis of an affective disorder. Results Five overarching themes and one subtheme were identified through reflexive thematic analysis using an inductive approach: Theme 1: Pet impact on generalized anxiety and panic, Subtheme 1A: Pet impact on social anxiety and loneliness; Theme 2: Pet impact on low mood, depression, and stress; Theme 3: Pet impact on severe mental health and suicide prevention; Theme 4: Staying well; Theme 5: Positive outlook and successful futures. Several perceived mechanisms underpinning the impacts of pets for mental health were also identified. Discussion These findings have relevance for the development and evaluation of mental health interventions and treatment protocols aimed at young adults with mental health difficulties, where companion animals may prove to be effective for symptom management and improvements in positive wellbeing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxanne D. Hawkins
- Clinical and Health Psychology, School of Health in Social Science, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Chih-Hsin Kuo
- Psychology Division, The University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom
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Friedmann E, Gee NR, Simonsick EM, Kitner-Triolo MH, Resnick B, Adesanya I, Koodaly L, Gurlu M. Pet ownership and maintenance of cognitive function in community-residing older adults: evidence from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA). Sci Rep 2023; 13:14738. [PMID: 37679499 PMCID: PMC10484936 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41813-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Pet ownership has been associated with reduced deterioration in physical health as older adults age; little research focused on deterioration in cognitive function. We examine the relationship of pet, dog, cat ownership, and dog walking to changes in cognitive function among 637 generally healthy community-dwelling older adults (185 pet owners) aged 50-100 years (M = 68.3, SD = 9.6) within the BLSA. Cognitive assessments every 1-4 years over 1-13 years (M = 7.5, SD = 3.6) include the California Verbal Learning (Immediate, Short, Long Recall); Benton Visual Retention; Trail-Making (Trails A, B, B-A); Digit Span; Boston Naming (Naming); and Digit Symbol Substitution (Digit Symbol) Tests. In linear mixed models, deterioration in cognitive function with age was slower for pet owners than non-owners (Immediate, Short, Long Recall; Trails A,B,B-A; Naming; Digit Symbol); dog owners than non-owners (Immediate, Short Recall; Trails A,B; Naming; Digit Symbol); and cat owners than non-owners (Immediate, Short, Long Recall; Naming), controlling for age and comorbidities. Among dog owners (N = 73) walkers experienced slower deterioration than non-walkers (Trails B, B-A; Short Recall). All ps ≤ 0.05. We provide important longitudinal evidence that pet ownership and dog walking contribute to maintaining cognitive function with aging and the need to support pet ownership and dog walking in design of senior communities and services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Friedmann
- Department of Organizational Systems and Adult Health, University of Maryland School of Nursing, 655 W. Lombard St., Suite 402, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.
| | - Nancy R Gee
- Department of Psychiatry, Center for Human Animal Interaction, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Eleanor M Simonsick
- Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Melissa H Kitner-Triolo
- Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Barbara Resnick
- Department of Organizational Systems and Adult Health, University of Maryland School of Nursing, 655 W. Lombard St., Suite 402, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Ikmat Adesanya
- Department of Organizational Systems and Adult Health, University of Maryland School of Nursing, 655 W. Lombard St., Suite 402, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Lincy Koodaly
- Department of Organizational Systems and Adult Health, University of Maryland School of Nursing, 655 W. Lombard St., Suite 402, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Merve Gurlu
- Department of Organizational Systems and Adult Health, University of Maryland School of Nursing, 655 W. Lombard St., Suite 402, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
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Żebrowska M, Strohmaier S, Westgarth C, Huttenhower C, Erber AC, Haghayegh S, Eliassen AH, Huang T, Laden F, Hart JE, Rosner B, Kawachi I, Chavarro JE, Okereke OI, Schernhammer ES. Relationship between pet ownership and risk of high depressive symptoms in adolescence and young adulthood. J Affect Disord 2023; 323:554-561. [PMID: 36464093 PMCID: PMC9839520 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2022.11.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Only few longitudinal studies with high risk of bias have examined relationship between pets and adolescents' mental health. METHODS Our prospective cohort study followed depression-free US adolescents aged 12-18, enrolled in the Growing Up Today Study from pet ownership assessment in 1999 to possible occurrence of high depressive symptoms defined based on the McKnight Risk Factor Survey between 2001 and 2003. Propensity-score-adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated using generalized estimating equation models. RESULTS Among 9631 adolescents [42.4 % male, mean age 14.9 years (SD 1.6)], we found no association between pet ownership and risk of high depressive symptoms (ORany_pet = 1.14; 95%CI, 0.95-1.38). Stratified analyses revealed no evidence of effect modification by sex, but effect modification by maternal history of depression (depressed mothers ORany_pet = 0.83; 95 % CI: 0.58-1.19, non-depressed mothers ORany_pet = 1.27; 95 % CI: 1.02-1.58; Pintx = 0.03), which differed further by children's sex. Effects were more pronounced among children with a history of childhood abuse (ORany_pet = 0.41 (0.14-1.15); Pintx ≤0.03). No major differences by type of pet owned were observed in any of these analyses. LIMITATIONS Our sample is predominantly white and all are offspring of nurses with a similar academic background which could affect generalizability. CONCLUSIONS Overall, we found no association between pet ownership and depression during adolescence, however subgroup analyses indicated some individuals may benefit from a pet. Future longitudinal studies with more detailed exposure assessments, including pet attachment are needed to further explore the potential of human-animal interaction on mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Żebrowska
- Department of Epidemiology, Center for Public Health, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Susanne Strohmaier
- Department of Epidemiology, Center for Public Health, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Carri Westgarth
- Department of Livestock and One Health, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Curtis Huttenhower
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Astrid C Erber
- Department of Epidemiology, Center for Public Health, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Shahab Haghayegh
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - A Heather Eliassen
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tianyi Huang
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Francine Laden
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jaime E Hart
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Bernard Rosner
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA; Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ichiro Kawachi
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jorge E Chavarro
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Olivia I Okereke
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Eva S Schernhammer
- Department of Epidemiology, Center for Public Health, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.
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Understanding the impact of dog ownership on autistic adults: implications for mental health and suicide prevention. Sci Rep 2021; 11:23655. [PMID: 34880277 PMCID: PMC8655007 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02504-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Mental health problems and suicide are more frequent in autistic adults than general population. Dog ownership can improve human well-being. This study aimed to generate a framework of well-being outcomes for dog-related activities in autistic adults and compare it to the framework generated for a general adult population. Thirty-six autistic dog owners (18–74 years old, 18 males) from diverse UK regions were interviewed and transcripts thematically analysed. 16.7% reported that their dogs prevented them from taking their own lives, mainly due to the dog's affection and the need to care for the animal. Close dog-owner interactions (e.g., cuddling, walking, dog's presence) were the most frequent activities improving emotions/moods and life functioning, whereas routine-like activities (e.g., feeding the animal) particularly enhanced life functioning. Well-being worsening was mainly linked to dog behaviour problems, dog poor health/death and obligations to the dog. Despite some negatives associated with ownership, having a dog could improve the well-being of many autistic adults and assist suicide prevention strategies in this high-risk group. The framework was consistent with that generated previously, indicating its robustness and the potential opportunity to focus on dog-related activities rather than the vague concept of “ownership” when considering the impact of ownership on well-being.
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Clements H, Valentin S, Jenkins N, Rankin J, Gee NR, Snellgrove D, Sloman KA. Companion Animal Type and Level of Engagement Matter: A Mixed-Methods Study Examining Links between Companion Animal Guardianship, Loneliness and Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11082349. [PMID: 34438806 PMCID: PMC8388758 DOI: 10.3390/ani11082349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Companion animals (pets) may reduce loneliness and promote the well-being of their guardians (owners). This is important in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, as companion animal guardians may be less negatively affected by the pandemic. This research examined the influence of companion animals, and specifically ornamental fishes, on mental well-being and loneliness during the pandemic. Data were collected via an online survey and interviews with companion animal guardians. Companion animal guardianship alone was not linked to loneliness or well-being during the pandemic, but there was evidence that people who interacted more with their dogs (and to a lesser extent cats) were lonelier and had poorer well-being; possibly, these individuals spent more time with their dogs/cats because they were more isolated. Open-ended survey responses and interview data identified that most people felt their companion animals were a positive influence during the pandemic, but ornamental fishes were perceived as having a less positive effect than other companion animals, possibly because they cannot provide comfort via physical touch. Consistent with past research, these findings indicate that people believe their companion animals positively influenced their lives during the pandemic, but there is a lack of quantitative evidence to support these beliefs. Abstract To reduce the spread of COVID-19, countries worldwide placed limitations on social interaction, which is anticipated to have severe psychological consequences. Although findings are inconsistent, prior research has suggested that companion animals may positively influence human well-being and reduce loneliness. In the context of COVID-19, this has important implications, as companion animal guardians may be less negatively affected by the pandemic. The primary aim of this research was to investigate the influence of companion animals on mental well-being and loneliness during the pandemic, with specific interest in the role of ornamental fishes. A mixed-methods study was conducted, using an international sample. Quantitative data were collected via an online survey (n = 1199) and analysed using robust hierarchical multiple regression analyses; the influence of level of engagement with companion animals was examined for dogs, cats and ornamental fishes. There was no evidence that companion animal guardianship was associated with loneliness and mental well-being during the pandemic but spending more time engaging physically or socially with dogs (and to a lesser extent cats) was generally associated with poorer outcomes. Qualitative data were collected through open-ended survey responses (n = 757) and semi-structured interviews (n = 25) and analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. Two themes were developed—one related to companion animals as providers of social and emotional support, and the other to companion animals as providers of purpose and perspective. Concerns regarding the impact of the pandemic on animal welfare were also identified. Compared to other animal types, more participants expressed indifference regarding the impact of their fishes on their well-being during the pandemic, possibly because fishes cannot provide comfort via physical touch. The findings of this study reflect the wider field of human–animal interaction; although qualitative data suggest guardians believe their companion animals are a positive influence in their lives, there is little convincing quantitative data to support these beliefs. This highlights the need to refine theories regarding which aspects of companion animal guardianship may influence human well-being; the findings from this research may be useful in the refinement of such theories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather Clements
- School of Health & Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK;
- Correspondence: (H.C.); (K.A.S.)
| | - Stephanie Valentin
- School of Health & Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Glasgow G72 0LH, UK;
| | - Nicholas Jenkins
- School of Education & Social Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Glasgow G72 0LH, UK;
| | - Jean Rankin
- School of Health & Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK;
| | - Nancy R. Gee
- Center for Human–Animal Interaction, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA;
| | - Donna Snellgrove
- WALTHAM Petcare Science Institute, Waltham-on-the-Wolds LE14 4RT, UK;
| | - Katherine A. Sloman
- School of Health & Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK;
- Correspondence: (H.C.); (K.A.S.)
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Carr D, Friedmann E, Gee NR, Gilchrist C, Sachs-Ericsson N, Koodaly L. Dog Walking and the Social Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Loneliness in Older Adults. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:1852. [PMID: 34206286 PMCID: PMC8300215 DOI: 10.3390/ani11071852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pet ownership can provide important companionship and facilitate social connections, which may be particularly important to socially isolated older adults. Given the significant deleterious impact of loneliness on health and wellbeing in later life, many predicted that public safety measures imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic would greatly increase loneliness, particularly among vulnerable populations like older adults. We investigated whether dog walking buffers loneliness in the context of stressors imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Longitudinal survey data were obtained from a Florida community-based sample of adults (n = 466) aged 60+ years old in September 2018 and October 2020. Using OLS regression models, we tested: a) the association between the social consequences of COVID-19 and changes in loneliness, and b) the buffering effect of dog walking on this relationship. The high social consequences of COVID-19 were related to increases in loneliness. Walking a dog daily buffered the relationship. These results suggest potential therapeutic effects of dog walking for the promotion of mental health in older adults, particularly in the context of stressful situations that accentuate risks for loneliness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawn Carr
- Department of Sociology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - Erika Friedmann
- School of Nursing, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; (E.F.); (L.K.)
| | - Nancy R. Gee
- Center for Human-Animal Interaction, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA;
| | | | | | - Lincy Koodaly
- School of Nursing, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; (E.F.); (L.K.)
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7
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Rodriguez KE, Herzog H, Gee NR. Variability in Human-Animal Interaction Research. Front Vet Sci 2021; 7:619600. [PMID: 33521092 PMCID: PMC7843787 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.619600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The field of Human-Animal Interaction (HAI) is plagued with mixed results. Some findings appear to indicate that interacting with a companion animal is beneficial for some aspect of human health and well-being, while other research outcomes are inconclusive or even indicate the opposite. The purpose of this paper is to take a closer look at this variability in research outcomes and to provide plausible explanations and potential remedies. Some of the reasons for mixed results are likely due to the wide variety of methodologies implemented, intermittent use of standardized measures and manualized protocols, variability in human and animal participants, and limited quantification of human-animal interactions or definitions of pet ownership. Variability in research outcomes is not unique to HAI and is, in fact, not uncommon in many more established fields such as psychology and medicine. However, the potential reasons for the variability may be linked to the unique nature of HAI in that, in its' simplest form, it involves two complex organisms, a human and an animal, interacting in dynamic ways. We argue that this complexity makes research in this field particularly challenging and requires a broad spectrum of theoretical and methodological considerations to improve rigor while ensuring the validity and reliability of conclusions drawn from study results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerri E Rodriguez
- Human-Animal Bond in Colorado, School of Social Work, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Harold Herzog
- Department of Psychology, Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, NC, United States
| | - Nancy R Gee
- Department of Psychiatry, Center for Human Animal Interaction, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
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Carr DC, Taylor MG, Gee NR, Sachs-Ericsson N. Psychological Health Benefits of Companion Animals Following a Social Loss. THE GERONTOLOGIST 2020; 60:428-438. [PMID: 31504497 DOI: 10.1093/geront/gnz109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES In later life, the loss of a spouse due to divorce or widowhood is common and can lead to elevated depressive symptoms and loneliness. Research suggests that companion animal (CA) may be beneficial for psychological health, but limited research has explored whether CA can buffer negative consequences of social losses. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS This study uses data drawn from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) to examine changes in depressive symptoms and loneliness in relation to a social loss among those with/without a CA. We used inverse-probability weighted regression to adjust for selection factors and isolate effects of CA ownership on changes in psychological health. RESULTS Regardless of CA ownership, spousal loss was associated with psychological health consequences. Facing a social loss without a CA was related to statistically greater increases in depressive symptoms relative to those with a pet (2.580 vs. 1.207 symptoms, respectively). Similarly, experiencing a loss was associated with significantly greater increases in loneliness, with statistically greater increases in loneliness among those without a CA (p < .01). However, those with a CA did not experience greater increases in loneliness than those who did not experience a loss. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS In later life, CA ownership may buffer against the detrimental consequences of major social losses on psychological health. Future research on the therapeutic effects of CA ownership, as well as pet therapy, during other major life stage transitions is needed to help isolate potential mechanisms driving the benefits of human-animal interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawn C Carr
- Department of Sociology, Pepper Institute on Aging and Public Policy, Florida State University, Tallahassee
| | - Miles G Taylor
- Department of Sociology, Pepper Institute on Aging and Public Policy, Florida State University, Tallahassee
| | - Nancy R Gee
- Department of Psychology, State University of New York, Fredonia.,Waltham Centre for Pet Nutrition, Leicestershire, UK
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9
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Friedmann E, Gee NR, Simonsick EM, Studenski S, Resnick B, Barr E, Kitner-Triolo M, Hackney A. Pet Ownership Patterns and Successful Aging Outcomes in Community Dwelling Older Adults. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:293. [PMID: 32671105 PMCID: PMC7330097 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Diminishing cognitive and physical functions, worsening psychological symptoms, and increased mortality risk and morbidity typically accompany aging. The aging population's health needs will continue to increase as the proportion of the population aged > 50 years increases. Pet ownership (PO) has been linked to better health outcomes in older adults, particularly those with chronic conditions. Much of the evidence is weak. Little is known about PO patterns as people age or the contribution of PO to successful aging in community-dwelling older adults. This study examines PO patterns among healthy community-dwelling older adults and the relationship of PO to cognitive and physical functions and psychological status. Methods: Participants in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (> 50 years old, N = 378) completed a battery of cognitive, physical function, and psychological tests, as well as a PO questionnaire. Descriptive and non-parametric or general/generalized linear model analyses were conducted for separate outcomes. Results: Most participants (82%) had kept pets and 24% have pets: 14% dogs, 12% cats, 3% other pets. The most frequent reasons for having pets included enjoyment (80%) and companionship (66%). Most owners had kept the pet they had the longest for over 10 years (70%). PO was lower in older decades (p < 0.001). Pet owners were more likely to live in single-family homes and reside with others (p = 0.001) than non-owners. Controlling for age, PO was associated independently with better cognitive function (verbal leaning/memory p = 0.041), dog ownership predicted better physical function (daily energy expenditure, p = 0.018), and cat ownership predicted better cognitive functioning (verbal learning/memory, p = 0.035). Many older adults who did not own pets (37%) had regular contact with pets, which was also related to health outcomes. Conclusion: PO is lower at older ages, which mirrors the general pattern of poorer cognitive and physical function, and psychological status at older ages. PO and regular contact with pets (including PO) are associated with better cognitive status compared with those who did not own pets or had no regular contact with pets independent of age. Dog ownership was related to better physical function. Longitudinal analysis is required to evaluate the association of PO and/or regular contact with maintenance of health status over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Friedmann
- Department of Organizational Systems and Adult Health, University of Maryland School of Nursing, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Nancy R Gee
- Center for Human Animal Interaction, Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Eleanor M Simonsick
- Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Stephanie Studenski
- Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Barbara Resnick
- Department of Organizational Systems and Adult Health, University of Maryland School of Nursing, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Erik Barr
- Department of Organizational Systems and Adult Health, University of Maryland School of Nursing, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Melissa Kitner-Triolo
- Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Alisha Hackney
- Department of Organizational Systems and Adult Health, University of Maryland School of Nursing, Baltimore, MD, United States
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Effects of Proximity between Companion Dogs and Their Caregivers on Heart Rate Variability Measures in Older Adults: A Pilot Study. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17082674. [PMID: 32295094 PMCID: PMC7215279 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17082674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Heart rate variability (HRV) is a noninvasive tool used to evaluate autonomic nervous system function and is affected by age, stress, postural changes, and physical activity. Dog ownership has been associated with higher 24-hr HRV and increased physical activity compared to nonowners. The current pilot study was designed to evaluate the effects of proximity to a dog in real time (minute-by-minute) on older dog caregivers’ HRV measures and stress index during normal daily life over a 24-hr period. Eleven caregivers (56–83 years of age) wore ActiGraph GT9X Link accelerometers and camntech electrocardiogram monitors, and 11 dogs wore PetPace Collars and ActiGraph monitors to determine (a) proximity (absence or presence of Received Signal Strength Indicator, RSSI), (b) heart rate and HRV measures, (c) position (lying vs. sitting vs. standing), and (d) physical activity in the 11 dyads. Twenty-four hour HRV (SDNN index) and physical activity in the caregivers and dogs were related. Stress index was lower, and HRV parameters (SDNN, rMSDD, high frequency power (HF)) were higher when an RSSI signal was detected (presence of dog) compared to no RSSI signal (absence of dog) in the caregivers while inactive (lying + sitting + standing combined). HRV parameters (rMSDD and HF) were lower in the caregivers while standing and sitting compared to lying. The results from this pilot study support the hypothesis that spending time in the presence of a companion dog increases caregivers’ HRV throughout the day and suggest that proximity to a dog may contribute to overall improvements in 24-hr HRV and cardiac health in dog caregivers.
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Grubaugh AL, Myers US, Keller SM, Wangelin BC, Lozano BE, Tuerk PW. An adjunctive human-animal interaction intervention for veterans with PTSD: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 2019; 20:786. [PMID: 31881993 PMCID: PMC6935088 DOI: 10.1186/s13063-019-3877-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) rarely remits over time, and if left untreated, leads to significant distress, functional impairment, and increased health care costs. Fortunately, effective evidence-based treatments (EBTs) for PTSD, such as Prolonged Exposure (PE), exist. Despite their availability and efficacy, a significant number of individuals with PTSD do not initiate treatment when offered or dropout prematurely. One proposed theory suggests that the emotional-numbing symptoms of PTSD (e.g., blunted affect, apathy) can serve as a barrier to engaging in, and successfully completing, treatment; and the broad human-animal interaction (HAI) literature available suggests that HAI can potentially reduce emotional numbing related to PTSD. Accordingly, this manuscript describes an ongoing, federally funded, randomized controlled trial testing the efficacy of RESCUE, an HAI intervention, as a viable adjunctive treatment component for PE. METHODS/DESIGN The study will include 70 veterans with PTSD treated at a Southeastern Veterans Affairs Medical Center (VAMC). All participants in the trial receive up to 12 sessions of PE. Participants are randomly assigned 1:1 to (1) volunteer at a local animal shelter or (2) volunteer at a community agency of their choice as part of their in-vivo exposure exercises for PE. Outcomes will be examined via standard clinical interviews, self-report questionnaires, and thematic interviews. DISCUSSION It is hypothesized that participants in the HAI condition will report greater decreases in emotional-numbing symptoms and increased treatment compliance and completion rates relative to those in the community volunteer condition. If successful, RESCUE, could be easily incorporated into standard PE and broadly disseminated. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov. ID: NCT03504722. Retrospectively registered on 2 May 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anouk L Grubaugh
- Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, 109 Bee Street, Charleston, SC, 29401, USA.
| | - Ursula S Myers
- Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, 109 Bee Street, Charleston, SC, 29401, USA
| | - Stephanie M Keller
- Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, 109 Bee Street, Charleston, SC, 29401, USA
| | - Bethany C Wangelin
- Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, 109 Bee Street, Charleston, SC, 29401, USA
| | - Brian E Lozano
- Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, 109 Bee Street, Charleston, SC, 29401, USA
| | - Peter W Tuerk
- Sheila C. Johnson Center for Clinical Services, Department of Human Services, Curry School of Education, University of Virginia, 417 Emmet Street South, 400270, Charlottesville, VA, 22904, USA
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Griffin JA, Hurley K, McCune S. Human-Animal Interaction Research: Progress and Possibilities. Front Psychol 2019; 10:2803. [PMID: 31920846 PMCID: PMC6932996 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- James A. Griffin
- The National Institutes of Health, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Karyl Hurley
- Mars Incorporated, Global Scientific Affairs, McLean, VA, United States
| | - Sandra McCune
- The WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition, Leicestershire, United Kingdom
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13
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Fine AH, Beck AM, Ng Z. The State of Animal-Assisted Interventions: Addressing the Contemporary Issues that will Shape the Future. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:E3997. [PMID: 31635430 PMCID: PMC6843928 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16203997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
As the worldwide popularity of animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) increases, the fieldis quickly approaching a paradigm shift, adjusting its image to incorporate more evidence-basedresearch and aligning its purpose for advancing a new future. Contemporary critical issues thatconfront the field today include, but are not limited, to research, animal welfare, practice guidelines,and public policy. This article will provide an overview of the history of AAI and the majormilestones that the field has undergone. The current state of AAI research will be scrutinized, andthe areas that warrant further study will be recommended. Special attention will be given to thecurrent state of animal welfare in AAI, the research that has been done in the area, and practiceguidelines that safeguard animal wellbeing. This article will then discuss how evidence-basedresearch and animal welfare guidelines inform the development of comprehensive professionalstandards and influence changes in public policy regarding AAI. The authors' perceptions for thefield's future trajectory will be presented, which will include solutions to move the field in thedirection that best advances the human-animal bond in research, practice, and public perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aubrey H Fine
- California State Polytechnic University, Pomona- Department of Education 3801 W Temple Ave, Pomona, CA 91768, USA.
| | - Alan M Beck
- Center for Human-Animal Bond, College Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
| | - Zenithson Ng
- University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, 2407 River Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA.
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Clements H, Valentin S, Jenkins N, Rankin J, Baker JS, Gee N, Snellgrove D, Sloman K. The effects of interacting with fish in aquariums on human health and well-being: A systematic review. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0220524. [PMID: 31356652 PMCID: PMC6663029 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0220524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Most research into the health benefits of human-animal interaction has focused on species that interact physically with humans, such as dogs. This may be unsuitable for certain populations for reasons including accessibility and the risk of negative consequences to both the person and the animal. However, some research has associated viewing fish in aquariums with positive well-being outcomes; as there is no physical contact with the animal, this form of interaction carries less risk. At present, little is known about the specific benefits of human-fish interaction. OBJECTIVES To explore current evidence relating to the psychological and physiological benefits of interacting with fish in aquariums. METHODS Systematic searches were conducted to identify relevant primary research of any design. All forms of interaction were considered, including keeping fish as companion animals and fish aquarium-based interventions. "Non-live" alternatives, such as videos, were also considered. This review was conducted according to a registered protocol (PROSPERO ID: CRD42018090466). RESULTS Nineteen studies were included. Two provided tentative evidence that keeping home aquaria is associated with relaxation. The remaining studies involved novel interactions with fish in home or public aquariums. Outcomes relating to anxiety, relaxation and/or physiological stress were commonly assessed; evidence was mixed with both positive and null findings. Preliminary support was found for effects on mood, pain, nutritional intake and body weight, but not loneliness. All studies had methodological issues and risk of bias was either high or unclear. CONCLUSIONS Review findings suggest that interacting with fish in aquariums has the potential to benefit human well-being, although research on this topic is currently limited. Future research should aim to address gaps in the evidence, such as whether and how the type of human-fish interaction can influence well-being outcomes. Researchers should also aim to address the methodological concerns highlighted in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather Clements
- Institute of Biomedical and Environmental Health Research, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom
| | - Stephanie Valentin
- Institute of Clinical Exercise and Health Science, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Lanarkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas Jenkins
- School of Media, Culture and Society, University of the West of Scotland, Lanarkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Jean Rankin
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom
| | - Julien S. Baker
- Institute of Clinical Exercise and Health Science, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Lanarkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Nancy Gee
- WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition, Leicestershire, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychology, State University of New York, Fredonia, New York, United States of America
| | - Donna Snellgrove
- WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition, Leicestershire, United Kingdom
| | - Katherine Sloman
- Institute of Biomedical and Environmental Health Research, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom
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Janevic MR, Shute V, Connell CM, Piette JD, Goesling J, Fynke J. The Role of Pets in Supporting Cognitive-Behavioral Chronic Pain Self-Management: Perspectives of Older Adults. J Appl Gerontol 2019; 39:1088-1096. [PMID: 31215816 PMCID: PMC6920602 DOI: 10.1177/0733464819856270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Cognitive-behavioral self-management strategies are recommended for older adults with chronic pain. The goal of this study was to explore how pet ownership promotes use of these strategies in everyday life. We conducted four focus groups (N = 25) with dog and cat owners aged ≥70 years with persistent pain. Participants described how their pets affect their daily routines and health, including pain and its management. We analyzed transcripts for salient themes, categorizing them according to their alignment with recommended pain self-management strategies: Mood Management (e.g., increases positive affect), Relaxation/Distraction (e.g., soothing presence), Physical Activity (e.g., dog-walking), Behavioral Activation (e.g., motivates activity even when pain present), Social Activation (e.g., facilitates socializing), and Sleep (e.g., encourages routine). Some participants described negative impacts of pet ownership. Having pets can facilitate behaviors and thoughts that may enhance coping with pain. Testing formal ways of leveraging pets' role may expand nonpharmacological options for chronic pain management.
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