1
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Yadava RS, Mandal M, Mahadevan MS. Studying the Effect of MBNL1 and MBNL2 Loss in Skeletal Muscle Regeneration. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2687. [PMID: 38473933 PMCID: PMC10931579 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Loss of function of members of the muscleblind-like (MBNL) family of RNA binding proteins has been shown to play a key role in the spliceopathy of RNA toxicity in myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1), the most common muscular dystrophy affecting adults and children. MBNL1 and MBNL2 are the most abundantly expressed members in skeletal muscle. A key aspect of DM1 is poor muscle regeneration and repair, leading to dystrophy. We used a BaCl2-induced damage model of muscle injury to study regeneration and effects on skeletal muscle satellite cells (MuSCs) in Mbnl1∆E3/∆E3 and Mbnl2∆E2/∆E2 knockout mice. Similar experiments have previously shown deleterious effects on these parameters in mouse models of RNA toxicity. Muscle regeneration in Mbnl1 and Mbnl2 knockout mice progressed normally with no obvious deleterious effects on MuSC numbers or increased expression of markers of fibrosis. Skeletal muscles in Mbnl1∆E3/∆E3/ Mbnl2∆E2/+ mice showed increased histopathology but no deleterious reductions in MuSC numbers and only a slight increase in collagen deposition. These results suggest that factors beyond the loss of MBNL1/MBNL2 and the associated spliceopathy are likely to play a key role in the defects in skeletal muscle regeneration and deleterious effects on MuSCs that are seen in mouse models of RNA toxicity due to expanded CUG repeats.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mani S. Mahadevan
- Department of Pathology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; (R.S.Y.)
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2
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Conte TC, Duran-Bishop G, Orfi Z, Mokhtari I, Deprez A, Côté I, Molina T, Kim TY, Tellier L, Roussel MP, Maggiorani D, Benabdallah B, Leclerc S, Feulner L, Pellerito O, Mathieu J, Andelfinger G, Gagnon C, Beauséjour C, McGraw S, Duchesne E, Dumont NA. Clearance of defective muscle stem cells by senolytics restores myogenesis in myotonic dystrophy type 1. Nat Commun 2023; 14:4033. [PMID: 37468473 PMCID: PMC10356779 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-39663-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Muscle stem cells, the engine of muscle repair, are affected in myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1); however, the underlying molecular mechanism and the impact on the disease severity are still elusive. Here, we show using patients' samples that muscle stem cells/myoblasts exhibit signs of cellular senescence in vitro and in situ. Single cell RNAseq uncovers a subset of senescent myoblasts expressing high levels of genes related to the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). We show that the levels of interleukin-6, a prominent SASP cytokine, in the serum of DM1 patients correlate with muscle weakness and functional capacity limitations. Drug screening revealed that the senolytic BCL-XL inhibitor (A1155463) can specifically remove senescent DM1 myoblasts by inducing their apoptosis. Clearance of senescent cells reduced the expression of SASP, which rescued the proliferation and differentiation capacity of DM1 myoblasts in vitro and enhanced their engraftment following transplantation in vivo. Altogether, this study identifies the pathogenic mechanism associated with muscle stem cell defects in DM1 and opens a therapeutic avenue that targets these defective cells to restore myogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talita C Conte
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of pharmacology and physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Gilberto Duran-Bishop
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of obstetrics and gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Zakaria Orfi
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of pharmacology and physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Inès Mokhtari
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Health Sciences, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Saguenay, QC, Canada
- Neuromuscular diseases interdisciplinary research group (GRIMN), Saguenay-Lac-St-Jean Integrated University Health and Social Services Center, Saguenay, QC, Canada
| | - Alyson Deprez
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of pharmacology and physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Isabelle Côté
- Neuromuscular diseases interdisciplinary research group (GRIMN), Saguenay-Lac-St-Jean Integrated University Health and Social Services Center, Saguenay, QC, Canada
| | - Thomas Molina
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of pharmacology and physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Tae-Yeon Kim
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of microbiology, infectiology and immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Lydia Tellier
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- School of rehabilitation, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Marie-Pier Roussel
- Neuromuscular diseases interdisciplinary research group (GRIMN), Saguenay-Lac-St-Jean Integrated University Health and Social Services Center, Saguenay, QC, Canada
- Department of Fundamental Sciences, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Saguenay, QC, Canada
| | - Damien Maggiorani
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of pharmacology and physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | | | | | - Lara Feulner
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | | | - Jean Mathieu
- Neuromuscular diseases interdisciplinary research group (GRIMN), Saguenay-Lac-St-Jean Integrated University Health and Social Services Center, Saguenay, QC, Canada
- CHU Sherbrooke Research Center, and Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Gregor Andelfinger
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Cynthia Gagnon
- Neuromuscular diseases interdisciplinary research group (GRIMN), Saguenay-Lac-St-Jean Integrated University Health and Social Services Center, Saguenay, QC, Canada
- CHU Sherbrooke Research Center, and Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Christian Beauséjour
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of pharmacology and physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Serge McGraw
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of obstetrics and gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Elise Duchesne
- Department of Health Sciences, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Saguenay, QC, Canada.
- Neuromuscular diseases interdisciplinary research group (GRIMN), Saguenay-Lac-St-Jean Integrated University Health and Social Services Center, Saguenay, QC, Canada.
| | - Nicolas A Dumont
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada.
- School of rehabilitation, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada.
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3
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De Serres-Bérard T, Ait Benichou S, Jauvin D, Boutjdir M, Puymirat J, Chahine M. Recent Progress and Challenges in the Development of Antisense Therapies for Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:13359. [PMID: 36362145 PMCID: PMC9657934 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232113359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) is a dominant genetic disease in which the expansion of long CTG trinucleotides in the 3' UTR of the myotonic dystrophy protein kinase (DMPK) gene results in toxic RNA gain-of-function and gene mis-splicing affecting mainly the muscles, the heart, and the brain. The CUG-expanded transcripts are a suitable target for the development of antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) therapies. Various chemical modifications of the sugar-phosphate backbone have been reported to significantly enhance the affinity of ASOs for RNA and their resistance to nucleases, making it possible to reverse DM1-like symptoms following systemic administration in different transgenic mouse models. However, specific tissue delivery remains to be improved to achieve significant clinical outcomes in humans. Several strategies, including ASO conjugation to cell-penetrating peptides, fatty acids, or monoclonal antibodies, have recently been shown to improve potency in muscle and cardiac tissues in mice. Moreover, intrathecal administration of ASOs may be an advantageous complementary administration route to bypass the blood-brain barrier and correct defects of the central nervous system in DM1. This review describes the evolution of the chemical design of antisense oligonucleotides targeting CUG-expanded mRNAs and how recent advances in the field may be game-changing by forwarding laboratory findings into clinical research and treatments for DM1 and other microsatellite diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiéry De Serres-Bérard
- CERVO Research Center, Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Québec, Quebec City, QC G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Siham Ait Benichou
- LOEX, CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Center, Quebec City, QC G1J 1Z4, Canada
| | - Dominic Jauvin
- CERVO Research Center, Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Québec, Quebec City, QC G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Mohamed Boutjdir
- Cardiovascular Research Program, VA New York Harbor Healthcare System, New York, NY 11209, USA
- Department of Medicine, Cell Biology and Pharmacology, State University of New York Downstate Health Science University, New York, NY 11203, USA
- Department of Medicine, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Jack Puymirat
- LOEX, CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Center, Quebec City, QC G1J 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Mohamed Chahine
- CERVO Research Center, Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Québec, Quebec City, QC G1J 2G3, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
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4
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Ait Benichou S, Jauvin D, De-Serres-Berard T, Bennett F, Rigo F, Gourdon G, Boutjdir M, Chahine M, Puymirat J. Enhanced Delivery of Ligand-Conjugated Antisense Oligonucleotides (C16-HA-ASO) Targeting DMPK Transcripts for the Treatment of Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1. Hum Gene Ther 2022; 33:810-820. [PMID: 35794764 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2022.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) is a neuromuscular disorder that affects many organs. It is caused by the expansion of a cytosine-thymine-guanine (CTG) triplet repeat in the 3' untranslated region (UTR) of the human myotonic dystrophy protein kinase (hDMPK) gene, which results in a toxic gain-of-function of mutant hDMPK RNA transcripts. Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) have emerged in recent years as a potential gene therapy to treat DM1. However, the clinical efficacy of the systemic administration of ASOs is limited by a combination of insufficient potency and poor tissue distribution. In the present study, we assessed the potential of a new ligand-conjugated ASO (IONIS-877864; C16-HA-ASO) to target mutant hDMPK mRNA transcripts in the DMSXL mouse model of DM1. DMSXL mice were treated subcutaneously for 9 weeks with either IONIS-877864 (12.5, or 25 mg/kg) or with IONIS-486178 (12.5 or 25 mg/kg), an unconjugated ASO with the same sequence. At 25 mg/kg, IONIS-877864 significantly enhanced ASO delivery into the striated muscles of DMSXL mice following systemic administration compared to the unconjugated control. IONIS-877864 was also more efficacious than IONIS-486178, reducing mutant hDMPK transcripts by up to 92% in the skeletal muscles and 78% in the hearts of DMSXL mice. The decrease in mutant hDMPK transcripts in the skeletal muscles caused by IONIS-877864 was associated with a significant improvement in skeletal muscle strength. IONIS-877864 was non-toxic in the DMSXL mouse model. The present study showed that the C16-HA-conjugated ASO is a powerful tool for the development of a gene therapy for DM1.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Frank Bennett
- Ionis Pharmaceuticals Inc, 448132, Carlsbad, California, United States;
| | - Frank Rigo
- Ionis Pharmaceuticals Inc, 448132, Carlsbad, California, United States;
| | - Geneiviève Gourdon
- Sorbonne Université Faculté de Médecine, 517733, Paris, Île-de-France, France;
| | - Mohamed Boutjdir
- State University of New York , VA New York Harbor Healthcare System , New York, United States;
| | - Mohamed Chahine
- Laval University, 4440, Medecine, 2325 Rue de l'Université,, Québec, QC, Quebec, Quebec, Canada, G1V 0A6;
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5
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Molecular Therapies for Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1: From Small Drugs to Gene Editing. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23094622. [PMID: 35563013 PMCID: PMC9101876 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23094622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) is the most common muscular dystrophy affecting many different body tissues, predominantly skeletal and cardiac muscles and the central nervous system. The expansion of CTG repeats in the DM1 protein-kinase (DMPK) gene is the genetic cause of the disease. The pathogenetic mechanisms are mainly mediated by the production of a toxic expanded CUG transcript from the DMPK gene. With the availability of new knowledge, disease models, and technical tools, much progress has been made in the discovery of altered pathways and in the potential of therapeutic intervention, making the path to the clinic a closer reality. In this review, we describe and discuss the molecular therapeutic strategies for DM1, which are designed to directly target the CTG genomic tract, the expanded CUG transcript or downstream signaling molecules.
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6
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Loureiro JR, Castro AF, Figueiredo AS, Silveira I. Molecular Mechanisms in Pentanucleotide Repeat Diseases. Cells 2022; 11:cells11020205. [PMID: 35053321 PMCID: PMC8773600 DOI: 10.3390/cells11020205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The number of neurodegenerative diseases resulting from repeat expansion has increased extraordinarily in recent years. In several of these pathologies, the repeat can be transcribed in RNA from both DNA strands producing, at least, one toxic RNA repeat that causes neurodegeneration by a complex mechanism. Recently, seven diseases have been found caused by a novel intronic pentanucleotide repeat in distinct genes encoding proteins highly expressed in the cerebellum. These disorders are clinically heterogeneous being characterized by impaired motor function, resulting from ataxia or epilepsy. The role that apparently normal proteins from these mutant genes play in these pathologies is not known. However, recent advances in previously known spinocerebellar ataxias originated by abnormal non-coding pentanucleotide repeats point to a gain of a toxic function by the pathogenic repeat-containing RNA that abnormally forms nuclear foci with RNA-binding proteins. In cells, RNA foci have been shown to be formed by phase separation. Moreover, the field of repeat expansions has lately achieved an extraordinary progress with the discovery that RNA repeats, polyglutamine, and polyalanine proteins are crucial for the formation of nuclear membraneless organelles by phase separation, which is perturbed when they are expanded. This review will cover the amazing advances on repeat diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana R. Loureiro
- Genetics of Cognitive Dysfunction Laboratory, i3S- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (J.R.L.); (A.F.C.); (A.S.F.)
- Institute for Molecular and Cell Biology, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana F. Castro
- Genetics of Cognitive Dysfunction Laboratory, i3S- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (J.R.L.); (A.F.C.); (A.S.F.)
- Institute for Molecular and Cell Biology, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana S. Figueiredo
- Genetics of Cognitive Dysfunction Laboratory, i3S- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (J.R.L.); (A.F.C.); (A.S.F.)
- Institute for Molecular and Cell Biology, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Isabel Silveira
- Genetics of Cognitive Dysfunction Laboratory, i3S- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (J.R.L.); (A.F.C.); (A.S.F.)
- Institute for Molecular and Cell Biology, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +351-2240-8800
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7
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Verdile V, Guizzo G, Ferrante G, Paronetto MP. RNA Targeting in Inherited Neuromuscular Disorders: Novel Therapeutic Strategies to Counteract Mis-Splicing. Cells 2021; 10:cells10112850. [PMID: 34831073 PMCID: PMC8616048 DOI: 10.3390/cells10112850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuromuscular disorders represent multifaceted abnormal conditions, with little or no cure, leading to patient deaths from complete muscle wasting and atrophy. Despite strong efforts in the past decades, development of effective treatments is still urgently needed. Advent of next-generation sequencing technologies has allowed identification of novel genes and mutations associated with neuromuscular pathologies, highlighting splicing defects as essential players. Deciphering the significance and relative contributions of defective RNA metabolism will be instrumental to address and counteract these malignancies. We review here recent progress on the role played by alternative splicing in ensuring functional neuromuscular junctions (NMJs), and its involvement in the pathogenesis of NMJ-related neuromuscular disorders, with particular emphasis on congenital myasthenic syndromes and muscular dystrophies. We will also discuss novel strategies based on oligonucleotides designed to bind their cognate sequences in the RNA or targeting intermediary of mRNA metabolism. These efforts resulted in several chemical classes of RNA molecules that have recently proven to be clinically effective, more potent and better tolerated than previous strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Verdile
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Fondazione Santa Lucia, CERC, 00143 Rome, Italy; (V.V.); (G.G.); (G.F.)
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome Foro Italico, Piazza Lauro de Bosis 6, 00135 Rome, Italy
| | - Gloria Guizzo
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Fondazione Santa Lucia, CERC, 00143 Rome, Italy; (V.V.); (G.G.); (G.F.)
| | - Gabriele Ferrante
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Fondazione Santa Lucia, CERC, 00143 Rome, Italy; (V.V.); (G.G.); (G.F.)
| | - Maria Paola Paronetto
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Fondazione Santa Lucia, CERC, 00143 Rome, Italy; (V.V.); (G.G.); (G.F.)
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome Foro Italico, Piazza Lauro de Bosis 6, 00135 Rome, Italy
- Correspondence:
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Buonaiuto G, Desideri F, Taliani V, Ballarino M. Muscle Regeneration and RNA: New Perspectives for Ancient Molecules. Cells 2021; 10:cells10102512. [PMID: 34685492 PMCID: PMC8533951 DOI: 10.3390/cells10102512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of the ribonucleic acid (RNA) to self-replicate, combined with a unique cocktail of chemical properties, suggested the existence of an RNA world at the origin of life. Nowadays, this hypothesis is supported by innovative high-throughput and biochemical approaches, which definitively revealed the essential contribution of RNA-mediated mechanisms to the regulation of fundamental processes of life. With the recent development of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA-based vaccines, the potential of RNA as a therapeutic tool has received public attention. Due to its intrinsic single-stranded nature and the ease with which it is synthesized in vitro, RNA indeed represents the most suitable tool for the development of drugs encompassing every type of human pathology. The maximum effectiveness and biochemical versatility is achieved in the guise of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), which are emerging as multifaceted regulators of tissue specification and homeostasis. Here, we report examples of coding and ncRNAs involved in muscle regeneration and discuss their potential as therapeutic tools. Small ncRNAs, such as miRNA and siRNA, have been successfully applied in the treatment of several diseases. The use of longer molecules, such as lncRNA and circRNA, is less advanced. However, based on the peculiar properties discussed below, they represent an innovative pool of RNA biomarkers and possible targets of clinical value.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Biomarkers/metabolism
- COVID-19
- Homeostasis
- Humans
- Mice
- MicroRNAs/metabolism
- Muscle, Skeletal/metabolism
- Muscle, Skeletal/pathology
- Muscle, Skeletal/virology
- Myocardium/metabolism
- Origin of Life
- RNA, Circular
- RNA, Long Noncoding/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- RNA, Small Interfering/metabolism
- RNA, Small Untranslated/genetics
- RNA, Untranslated/genetics
- RNA, Viral/metabolism
- Regeneration
- SARS-CoV-2/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Buonaiuto
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies “Charles Darwin”, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy; (G.B.); (F.D.); (V.T.)
| | - Fabio Desideri
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies “Charles Darwin”, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy; (G.B.); (F.D.); (V.T.)
- Center for Life Nano & Neuro-Science of Instituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Valeria Taliani
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies “Charles Darwin”, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy; (G.B.); (F.D.); (V.T.)
| | - Monica Ballarino
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies “Charles Darwin”, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy; (G.B.); (F.D.); (V.T.)
- Correspondence:
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