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Long-Term Treatment with Bortezomib Induces Specific Methylation Changes in Differentiated Neuronal Cells. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14143402. [PMID: 35884461 PMCID: PMC9319119 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14143402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary We exposed LUHMES cells, differentiated into mature neurons, to bortezomib (BTZ) in two treatment cycles and analyzed the methylomes of these cells after each cycle, controlling the analysis for the methylation changes potentially induced by the long-term culture. Our results show that BTZ induces methylation changes that may affect cell morphogenesis, neurogenesis, and neurotransmission. These changes are specifically enriched within transcription factor binding sites of EBF, PAX, DLX, LHX, and HNF family members, which have been shown to regulate neurogenesis and neuronal differentiation. We further show that the observed methylation changes are not present in the SH-SY5Y cells that we used to study mechanisms of development of BTZ resistance. Altogether, our results show that BTZ treatment induces very specific changes in the methylomes of neuronal cells. Abstract Bortezomib (BTZ) is proteasome inhibitor, effectively used in the treatment of multiple myeloma, but frequently discontinued due to peripheral neuropathy, which develops in patients after consecutive treatment cycles. The molecular mechanisms affected by BTZ in neuronal cells, which result in neuropathy, remain unknown. However, BTZ is unlikely to lead to permanent morphological nerve damage, because neuropathy reverses after discontinuation of treatment, and nerve cells have very limited renewal capacity. We have previously shown that BTZ induces methylation changes in SH-SY5Y cells, which take part in the development of treatment resistance. Here, we hypothesized that BTZ affects the methylomes of mature neurons, and these changes are associated with BTZ neurotoxicity. Thus, we studied methylomes of neuronal cells, differentiated from the LUHMES cell line, after cycles of treatment with BTZ. Our results show that BTZ induces specific methylation changes in mature neurons, which are not present in SH-SY5Y cells after BTZ treatment. These changes appear to affect genes involved in morphogenesis, neurogenesis, and neurotransmission. Furthermore, identified methylation changes are significantly enriched within binding sites of transcription factors previously linked to neuron physiology, including EBF, PAX, DLX, LHX, and HNF family members. Altogether, our results indicate that methylation changes are likely to be involved in BTZ neurotoxicity.
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Xu T, Liu CC, Xin WJ. The Epigenetic Mechanisms Involved in Chronic Pain in Rodents: A Mini- Review. Curr Neuropharmacol 2022; 20:1011-1021. [PMID: 34561983 PMCID: PMC9886825 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x19666210924104757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic pain is a common distressing neurological disorder and about 30% of the global population suffers from it. In addition to being highly prevalent, chronic pain causes a heavy economic and social burden. Although substantial progress has been achieved to dissect the underlying mechanism of chronic pain in the past few decades, the incidence and treatment of this neurological illness is yet not properly managed in clinical practice. While nerve injury-, chemotherapy- or inflammation-induced functional regulation of gene expression in the dorsal root ganglion and spinal cord are extensively reported to be involved in the pathogenic process of chronic pain, the specific mechanism of these altered transcriptional profile still remains unclear. Recent studies have shown that epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA/RNA methylation, histone modification and circular RNAs regulation, are involved in the occurrence and development of chronic pain. In this review, we provide a description of research on the role of epigenetic mechanism in chronic pain, summarize the latest clinical and preclinical advance in this field, and propose the potential directions for further research to elucidate the molecular mechanism underlying the pathogenesis of chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Xu
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Department of Physiology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China; ,These authors contributed equally.
| | - Cui-Cui Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Malignant Tumor Epigenetics and Gene Regulation, Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China,These authors contributed equally.
| | - Wen-Jun Xin
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Department of Physiology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China; ,Address correspondence to this author at the Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Department of Physiology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, 74 Zhongshan Rd. 2, Guangzhou, China; E-mail:
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Sharma A, Johnson KB, Bie B, Rhoades EE, Sen A, Kida Y, Hockings J, Gatta A, Davenport J, Arcangelini C, Ritzu J, DeVecchio J, Hughen R, Wei M, Thomas Budd G, Lynn Henry N, Eng C, Foss J, Rotroff DM. A Multimodal Approach to Discover Biomarkers for Taxane-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy (TIPN): A Study Protocol. Technol Cancer Res Treat 2022; 21:15330338221127169. [PMID: 36172750 PMCID: PMC9523841 DOI: 10.1177/15330338221127169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Taxanes are a class of chemotherapeutics commonly used to treat various solid tumors, including breast and ovarian cancers. Taxane-induced peripheral neuropathy (TIPN) occurs in up to 70% of patients, impacting quality of life both during and after treatment. TIPN typically manifests as tingling and numbness in the hands and feet and can cause irreversible loss of function of peripheral nerves. TIPN can be dose-limiting, potentially impacting clinical outcomes. The mechanisms underlying TIPN are poorly understood. As such, there are limited treatment options and no tools to provide early detection of those who will develop TIPN. Although some patients may have a genetic predisposition, genetic biomarkers have been inconsistent in predicting chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN). Moreover, other molecular markers (eg, metabolites, mRNA, miRNA, proteins) may be informative for predicting CIPN, but remain largely unexplored. We anticipate that combinations of multiple biomarkers will be required to consistently predict those who will develop TIPN. Methods: To address this clinical gap of identifying patients at risk of TIPN, we initiated the Genetics and Inflammatory Markers for CIPN (GENIE) study. This longitudinal multicenter observational study uses a novel, multimodal approach to evaluate genomic variation, metabolites, DNA methylation, gene expression, and circulating cytokines/chemokines prior to, during, and after taxane treatment in 400 patients with breast cancer. Molecular and patient reported data will be collected prior to, during, and after taxane therapy. Multi-modal data will be used to develop a set of comprehensive predictive biomarker signatures of TIPN. Conclusion: The goal of this study is to enable early detection of patients at risk of developing TIPN, provide a tool to modify taxane treatment to minimize morbidity from TIPN, and improved patient quality of life. Here we provide a brief review of the current state of research into CIPN and TIPN and introduce the GENIE study design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anukriti Sharma
- Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, 22516Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, OH, USA
| | - Ken B Johnson
- Department of Anesthesiology, 14434University of Utah, UT, USA
| | - Bihua Bie
- Department of Anesthesiology, 2569Cleveland Clinic, OH, USA
| | | | - Alper Sen
- Department of Anesthesiology, 14434University of Utah, UT, USA
| | - Yuri Kida
- Department of Anesthesiology, 14434University of Utah, UT, USA
| | - Jennifer Hockings
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, 196246Cleveland Clinic, OH, USA.,Department of Pharmacy, 2569Cleveland Clinic, OH, USA.,196246Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Alycia Gatta
- 170292Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland Clinic, OH, USA
| | | | | | - Jennifer Ritzu
- 170292Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland Clinic, OH, USA
| | - Jennifer DeVecchio
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, 196246Cleveland Clinic, OH, USA
| | - Ron Hughen
- Department of Anesthesiology, 14434University of Utah, UT, USA
| | - Mei Wei
- 20270Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT
| | - G Thomas Budd
- 170292Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland Clinic, OH, USA.,196246Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.,Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - N Lynn Henry
- 67159University of Michigan Rogel Cancer Center, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Charis Eng
- 170292Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland Clinic, OH, USA.,Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, 196246Cleveland Clinic, OH, USA.,196246Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.,Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, USA.,Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Joseph Foss
- Department of Anesthesiology, 2569Cleveland Clinic, OH, USA
| | - Daniel M Rotroff
- Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, 22516Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, OH, USA.,196246Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.,Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, USA.,Endocrinology and Metabolism Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
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Vermeer CJC, Hiensch AE, Cleenewerk L, May AM, Eijkelkamp N. Neuro-immune interactions in paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy. Acta Oncol 2021; 60:1369-1382. [PMID: 34313190 DOI: 10.1080/0284186x.2021.1954241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Paclitaxel is a taxane-based chemotherapeutic agent used as a treatment in breast cancer. There is no effective prevention or treatment strategy for the most common side effect of peripheral neuropathy. In this manuscript, we reviewed the molecular mechanisms that contribute to paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy (PIPN) with an emphasis on immune-related processes. METHODS A systematic search of the literature was conducted in PubMed, EMBASE and Cochrane Library. The SYRCLE's risk of bias tool was used to assess internal validity. RESULTS 156 studies conducted with rodent models were included. The risk of bias was high due to unclear methodology. Paclitaxel induces changes in myelinated axons, mitochondrial dysfunction, and mechanical hypersensitivity by affecting ion channels expression and function and facilitating spinal transmission. Paclitaxel-induced inflammatory responses are important contributors to PIPN. CONCLUSION Immune-related processes are an important mechanism contributing to PIPN. Studies in humans that validate these mechanistic data are highly needed to facilitate the development of therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia J. C. Vermeer
- Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Anouk E. Hiensch
- Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Laurence Cleenewerk
- Center of Translational Immunology (CTI), University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Anne M. May
- Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Niels Eijkelkamp
- Center of Translational Immunology (CTI), University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Singh R, Adhya P, Sharma SS. Redox-sensitive TRP channels: a promising pharmacological target in chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2021; 25:529-545. [PMID: 34289785 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2021.1956464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) and its related pain is a major side effect of certain chemotherapeutic agents used in cancer treatment. Available analgesics are mostly symptomatic, and on prolonged treatment, patients become refractive to them. Hence, the development of improved therapeutics that act on novel therapeutic targets is necessary. Potential targets include the redox-sensitive TRP channels [e.g. TRPA1, TRPC5, TRPC6, TRPM2, TRPM8, TRPV1, TRPV2, and TRPV4] which are activated under oxidative stress associated with CIPN. AREAS COVERED We have examined numerous neuropathy-inducing cancer chemotherapeutics and their pathophysiological mechanisms. Oxidative stress and its downstream targets, the redox-sensitive TRP channels, together with their potential pharmacological modulators, are discussed. Finally, we reflect upon the barriers to getting new therapeutic approaches into the clinic. The literature search was conducted in PubMed upto and including April 2021. EXPERT OPINION Redox-sensitive TRP channels are a promising target in CIPN. Pharmacological modulators of these channels have reduced pain in preclinical models and in clinical studies. Clinical scrutiny suggests that TRPA1, TRPM8, and TRPV1 are the most promising targets because of their pain-relieving potential. In addition to the analgesic effect, TRPV1 agonist-Capsaicin possesses a disease-modifying effect in CIPN through its restorative property in damaged sensory nerves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramandeep Singh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Mohali, Punjab, India
| | - Pratik Adhya
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Mohali, Punjab, India
| | - Shyam Sunder Sharma
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Mohali, Punjab, India
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Chen YY, Jiang KS, Bai XH, Liu M, Lin SY, Xu T, Wei JY, Li D, Xiong YC, Xin WJ, Li ZY. ZEB1 Induces Ddr1 Promoter Hypermethylation and Contributes to the Chronic Pain in Spinal Cord in Rats Following Oxaliplatin Treatment. Neurochem Res 2021; 46:2181-2191. [PMID: 34032956 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-021-03355-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Application of chemotherapeutic oxaliplatin represses gene transcription through induction of DNA methylation, which may contribute to oxaliplatin-induced chronic pain. Here, Ddr1, which showed an increased methylation in the promoter, was screened from the SRA methylation database (PRJNA587622) after oxaliplatin treatment. qPCR and MeDIP assays verified that oxaliplatin treatment increased the methylation in Ddr1 promoter region and decreased the expression of DDR1 in the neurons of spinal dorsal horn. In addition, overexpression of DDR1 by intraspinal injection of AAV-hSyn-Ddr1 significantly alleviated the mechanical allodynia induced by oxaliplatin. Furthermore, we found that oxaliplatin treatment increased the expression of DNMT3b and ZEB1 in dorsal horn neurons, and promoted the interaction between DNMT3b and ZEB1. Intrathecal injection of ZEB1 siRNA inhibited the enhanced recruitment of DNMT3b and the hypermethylation in Ddr1 promoter induced by oxaliplatin. Finally, ZEB1 siRNA rescued the DDR1 downregulation and mechanical allodynia induced by oxaliplatin. In conclusion, these results suggested that the ZEB1 recruited DNMT3b to the Ddr1 promoter, which induced the DDR1 downregulation and contributed to the oxaliplatin-induced chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ying Chen
- Sun Yat-Sen Medical School and Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Kai-Sheng Jiang
- Sun Yat-Sen Medical School and Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Xiao-Hui Bai
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yet-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Meng Liu
- Sun Yat-Sen Medical School and Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Su-Yan Lin
- Sun Yat-Sen Medical School and Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Ting Xu
- Sun Yat-Sen Medical School and Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Jia-You Wei
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging, Center for Infection and Immunity, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, Guangdong, China
| | - Dai Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Changhai Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Yuan-Chang Xiong
- Department of Anesthesiology, Changhai Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Wen-Jun Xin
- Sun Yat-Sen Medical School and Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Zhen-Yu Li
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Sun Yet-Sen University, 58 Zhongshan Rd. 2, Guangzhou, 510080, China.
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Wang J, Zhao M, Jia P, Liu FF, Chen K, Meng FY, Hong JH, Zhang T, Jin XH, Shi J. The analgesic action of larixyl acetate, a potent TRPC6 inhibitor, in rat neuropathic pain model induced by spared nerve injury. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:118. [PMID: 32299452 PMCID: PMC7164269 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01767-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Neuropathic pain is a debilitating status that is insusceptible to the existing analgesics. It is important to explore the underlying pathophysiological changes and search for new pharmacological approaches. Transient receptor potential canonical 6 (TRPC6) is a mechanosensitive channel that is expressed by dorsal root ganglia and glial cells. It has been demonstrated that this channel in dorsal root ganglia plays essential roles in the formation of mechanical hyperalgesia in neuropathic pain. Recent pharmacological screening suggests that larixyl acetate (LA), a main constituent of larch resin, is able to selectively inhibit TRPC6 function. But whether LA is effective in treating neuropathic pain remains unknown. We investigated the efficacy of LA in rat neuropathic pain model, examined its effects on central neuroinflammation, and explored the possible molecular mechanisms by targeting the spinal dorsal horn. Methods Spared nerve injury (SNI) was conducted in Sprague-Dawley rats. Mechanical hypersensitivity and cold allodynia before and after single and multiple i.t. applications of LA at the dose of 3, 10, and 30 μM were evaluated by von Frey filament and acetone tests, respectively. Western blot, immunohistochemical, and immunocytochemical stainings were employed to examine the level and expression feature of ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), TRPC6, and phosphorylated p38 kinase. The changes of cytokine concentrations, including that of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10, were also assessed by multiplex analysis. TRPC6 antisense strategy was finally adopted to investigate the action mechanisms of LA. Results Single application of LA on day 5 post injury caused dose-dependent inhibition of mechanical allodynia with the ED50 value of 13.43 μM. Multiple applications of LA at 30 μM not only enhanced the analgesic efficacy but also elongated the effective duration without obvious influences on animal locomotor activities. Single and multiple administrations of LA at 30 μM played similar but weaker inhibitory effects on cold allodynia. In addition to behavioral improvements, multiple applications of LA for 6 days dose-dependently inhibited the upregulation of Iba-1, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, whereas had no obvious effects on the levels of GFAP and IL-10. Combined Western blot and immunostaining assays revealed that the expression of TRPC6 was significantly increased in both spinal dorsal horn after nerve injury and the cultured microglia challenged by LPS, which was however suppressed by the addition of LA at 30 μM or 10 μM, respectively. Further knockdown of TRPC6 with antisense oligodeoxynucleotide produced prominent analgesic effects in rats with SNI, accompanied by the reduced phosphorylation level of p38 in the microglia. Conclusions These data demonstrate that i.t. applied LA exhibits analgesic and anti-inflammatory action in neuropathic pain. The action of LA involves the suppression of TRPC6 and p38 signaling in the microglia. LA may be thus a promising pharmacological candidate for the treatment of intractable chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Wang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K. K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China.,Student Brigade, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Ming Zhao
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K. K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China.,Student Brigade, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Peng Jia
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K. K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China.,Student Brigade, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Fang-Fang Liu
- Department of Neurobiology, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Kun Chen
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K. K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Fei-Yang Meng
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K. K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China.,Student Brigade, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Jiang-Hao Hong
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K. K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China.,Student Brigade, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Ting Zhang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K. K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Xiao-Hang Jin
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K. K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China. .,Department of Basic Medical Morphology, Medical College, Xijing University, Xi' an, 710123, China.
| | - Juan Shi
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology & K. K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Preclinical School of Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China.
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