Bax and Bid act in synergy to bring about T11TS-mediated glioma apoptosis via the release of mitochondrial cytochrome c and subsequent caspase activation

Integrated analysis of necroptosis related gene signature to predict clinical outcomes, immune status and drug sensitivity in lower grade Glioma

Background

The treatment of lower grade gliomas (LGG) is currently the most challenging dilemma in the management of intracranial tumors. Necroptosis is a type of programmed cell death that is closely associated with tumor progression, However, the role of necroptosis related genes in LGG is not yet well elucidated.

Methods

Online databases were used to obtain gene expression and clinical information. After gene differential expression analysis, a risk score model based on prognostic differentially expressed necroptosis-related genes (DENGs) were constructed to predict prognosis for LGG patients. The validity of the risk score model was then assessed with Kaplan-Meier survival curve. The prognostic DENGs included in the risk score model were then subjected to gene expression analysis, functional enrichment analysis, consensus clustering analysis, and single cell sequencing analysis. Finally, we investigated the correlation of the risk score and immune infiltration in LGG tumor microenvironment and drug sensitivity for LGG patients in different risk groups.

Results

A survival risk score model was constructed based on seven prognostic DENGs, which demonstrated satisfactory performance in predicting the prognosis of LGG patients. According to functional enrichment analyses, these seven DENGs may play a regulatory role in LGG tumorigenesis through several immune and metabolic pathways. LGG patients could be categorized into two clusters with distinct prognosis and clinicopathologic characteristics based on the expression of seven DENGs. Single-cell sequencing analysis demonstrated that the DENG signature was differentially expressed in various types of cells in LGG and may play a vital role in oncogenesis. Additionally, drug sensitivity analysis suggested that the seven-gene signature could guide clinical medication for LGG patients.

Conclusion

Our study developed a reliable necroptosis-related signature to predict the prognosis of LGG patients. This gene signature may also help estimate immune status and anti-cancer drug sensitivity in LGG patients. Our findings may pave the way to enhance our understanding of necroptosis in LGG.

Therapeutic intervention of glioma with the novel antineoplastic agent T11TS: the story so far

The disease relevance of novel therapeutic agent T11TS, established first by the authors' group, was shown to ameliorate experimental glioma through multimodal mechanistic activities. T11TS reverses immunosuppression in glioma, causing profound effects on immune potentiation via peripheral, intracranial and hematopoietic cells. T-cell signaling in glioma is reversed by T11TS, modulating cytokine levels and favoring apoptotic killing of glioma cells. T11TS arrests the glioma cell cycle at the G1 phase via activation of p21. VEGF downregulation hypophosphorylates the Akt pathway. T11TS hinders endothelial cell progression and metastasis by arresting matrix degradation, inhibiting the Ras-Raf and Akt-PTEN pathways and initiating inflammatory changes, causing apoptosis. T11TS is effective against in vitro human glioma. Toxicity studies demonstrate that T11TS is nontoxic. The authors' study promise translational research with T11TS.

Preparation of Nereid oligopeptide and investigation of the mechanism underlying the induction of apoptosis in human lung cancer H1299 cells

In the present study, oligopeptides from Nereid (Perinereis aibuhitensis) were prepared via enzymatic hydrolysis, and the mechanism underlying the induction of apoptosis in H1299 cells was investigated. According to the analysis of the inhibition rate on proliferation, alkaline protease demonstrated the best enzymatic efficiency. The optimal conditions for hydrolysis were as follows: 50°C and pH 10 for 6 h; a material-to-liquid ratio of 1:1 (g/ml); and addition of 400 U/g enzyme. The hydrolysates were purified using ultrafiltration, anion chromatography, gel filtration chromatography, and high-performance liquid chromatography. The Nereid oligopeptide (NOP), with a molecular weight of 841 kDa and an amino acid sequence of glutamine-isoleucine-asparagine-glutamine-histidine-leucine, was obtained. NOP inhibited the proliferation of H1299 cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Morphological changes and apoptosis were also induced by NOP in H1299 cells. The western blot analysis revealed that the B-cell lymphoma 2/Bcl-2 associated X (Bcl-2/Bax) ratio was reduced by 24.7% in the NOP treatment group compared with the control group. The relative expression levels of cleaved caspase-9 (cleaved-CASP9) and cleaved caspase-3 (cleaved-CASP3) in the NOP treatment group were 2.55- and 1.71-fold higher than those measured in the control group, respectively. These results suggested that NOP exerts antitumor effects by influencing the proliferation and apoptosis of H1299 cells.

Akt Phosphorylation Orchestrates T11TS Mediated Cell Cycle Arrest in Glioma Cells

The novel anti-neoplastic glycopeptide T11TS retards glioma both in in-vitro clinical samples and in-vivo models. This study investigates the correlation between altering the glioma microenvironment with glioma arrest and death. Flow cytometry, immunoblotting, ELISA, and co-immunoprecipitation were employed to investigate glioma cell arrest and death. Results include a decline in phosphorylation of Akt and attenuation of p21 phosphorylation (Thr145,Ser146) and disassociation of p-Akt-Mdm2 and p-Akt-BAD facilitating death by Akt>BAD. T11TS influence phosphorylation patterns in two focal axes Akt>p21 and Akt>Mdm2>p53. The current article provides crucial insight in deciphering the mechanism of T11TS induced glioma cell arrest and death.

Inhibition of TGF-β Signaling in Gliomas by the Flavonoid Diosmetin Isolated from Dracocephalum peregrinum L

Background: Dracocephalum peregrinum L., a traditional Kazakh medicine, has good expectorant, anti-cough, and to some degree, anti-asthmatic effects. Diosmetin (3',5,7-trihydroxy-4'-methoxyflavone), a natural flavonoid found in traditional Chinese herbs, is the main flavonoid in D. peregrinum L. and has been used in various medicinal products because of its anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, estrogenic, and anti-inflammatory effects. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of diosmetin on the proliferation, invasion, and migration of glioma cells, as well as the possible underlying mechanisms. Methods: 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), scratch wound, and Transwell assays were used to demonstrate the effects of diosmetin in glioma. Protein levels of Bcl-2, Bax, cleaved caspase-3, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), E-cadherin, and phosphorylated and unphosphorylated smad2 and smad3 were determined by Western blots. U251 glioma cell development and progression were measured in vivo in a mouse model. Results: Diosmetin inhibited U251 cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in vitro, the TGF-β signaling pathway, and Bcl-2 expression. In contrast, there was a significant increase in E-cadherin, Bax, and cleaved caspase-3 expression. Furthermore, it effectively reduced the tumorigenicity of glioma cells and promoted apoptosis in vivo. Conclusion: The results of this study suggest that diosmetin suppresses the growth of glioma cells in vitro and in vivo, possibly by activating E-cadherin expression and inhibiting the TGF-β signaling pathway.

Naringenin inhibits migration of breast cancer cells via inflammatory and apoptosis cell signaling pathways

BACKGROUND

Naringenin, a flavonoid compound, has a wide variety of uses in the pharmaceutical industry for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential.

OBJECTIVES

The current experiment aimed to investigate the anticancer effect of naringenin in triple-negative human breast cancer cells (MDA-MR-231) and an animal model with 7,12-dimethylbenz[a] anthracene (DMBA)-induced breast cancer in female rats to determine the mechanisms and molecular targets.

METHODS

The cytotoxic effects of naringenin against MDA-MB-231 cells were assessed by MTT assay. Apoptosis and cell cycle alterations were analyzed via flow cytometry. Morphological and biochemical changes in DMBA-induced cancer with naringenin treatment were assayed using our protocol. The potential mechanisms of action were verified via qRT-PCR.

RESULTS

Naringenin was found to inhibit cell proliferation in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. This effect was associated with cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase, along with apoptosis and deposition at the sub-G1 phase (75%). Treatment with naringenin reduced tumor incidence (45.55, 40, and 27.67%) and tumor burden (78.7, 35.4, and 1.2 g) in a dose-dependent manner. Naringenin treatment altered the biochemical and antioxidant parameters related to inflammation necessary for anticancer activity. The qRT-PCR studies further confirmed the mitochondrial-mediated apoptotic effects of naringenin.

CONCLUSION

On the basis of these results, we can conclude that naringenin exerts an anticancer effect in the MDA-MB-231 cell line that arrests cell development at the G0/G1 phase, and in vivo it alters the mitochondrial-mediated intrinsic pathway responsible for apoptosis.

T11TS immunotherapy augments microglial and lymphocyte protective immune responses against Cryptococcus neoformans in the brain

Cryptococcus neoformans, the encapsulated yeast acquired through inhalation, remains localized in lungs, but harbours the CNS in immunocompromised individuals. Several treatment regimes have failed combating this disease totally, but long-term usage of drugs leads to organ damage. As T11-target structure (T11TS) has documented profound immune potentiation, we aimed to investigate the role of microglia, pivotal immune cells of brain in ameliorating cryptococcosis, with T11TS immunotherapy. Murine model with C neoformans infection was prepared by intraperitoneal injection and the brains of rats examined 7 days post-infections for histopathology by PAS and Alcian blue staining corroborated with organ fungal burden evidencing restorative T11TS action on Cryptococcal meningitis. Immunotherapy with three doses of T11TS, a CD2 ligand, in C neoformans infected rats, upregulates toll-like receptors 2, -4 and -9 of microglia, indicating increased phagocytosis of the fungus. Flowcytometric analysis revealed increased numbers of T11TS treated brain infiltrating CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-lymphocytes along with increased MHC I and MHC II on microglia, activating the infiltrating lymphocytes aiding the killing mechanism. Present study also indicated that T11TS increased production of Th1 inflammatory cytokines conducive to fungal elimination while the inhibitory Th2 cytokines were dampened. This preclinical study is first of its kind to show that T11TS effected profound immune stimulation of microglial activity of C neoformans infected rats eradicating residual fungal burden from the brain and can be a useful therapeutic strategy in fighting against this deadly disease.

Antineoplastic effect of pectic polysaccharides from green sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum) on mammary tumor cells in vivo and in vitro

The present study investigated the antineoplastic effects of pectic polysaccharides that were extracted from green sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum [CAP]) in the Ehrlich carcinoma in mice and in human mammary tumor lineages. After the subcutaneous inoculation of 2 × 10⁶ Ehrlich tumor cells, Female Swiss mice received 50, 100, or 150 mg/kg CAP or vehicle orally once daily or methotrexate (2.5 mg/kg, i.p., every 5 days) for 21 days. CAP dose-dependently reduced Ehrlich tumor growth. It also reduced the viability of MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, and MDA-MB-436 human mammary cell lineages. Treatment with CAP reduced the gene expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in vivo and in vitro, reduced vessel areas of the tumors, and induced necrosis in Ehrlich solid tumors. CAP treatment significantly increased Interleukin-6 in tumors. The antineoplastic effect of CAP appears to depend on the regulation of inflammation and angiogenesis. Further studies are encouraged to better understand the CAP potential for the treatment of breast tumors.

Silencing of aquaporin 5 inhibits the growth of A549 lung cancer cells in vitro and in vivo

The water channel protein aquaporin 5 (AQP5) is highly expressed in numerous tumors. However, its expression pattern and functions in lung cancer in humans remain unknown. In the present study, the role of AQP5 in the development of lung malignancies was examined. A short hairpin RNA construct targeting AQP5 mRNA was transfected into A549 cells to generate a lung cancer cell line in which AQP5 expression was stably silenced. In vitro and in vivo experiments were then performed to establish the effects of AQP5 on A549 cell apoptosis, proliferation and cell cycle progression. The results demonstrated that AQP5 silencing significantly inhibited the proliferation and promoted the apoptosis of A549 lung cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. In addition, it resulted in decreased activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 signaling pathway in A549 cells, and reduced levels of the downstream proteins c‑Fos and phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding protein. Furthermore, inhibition of AQP5 expression effectively reduced the tumorigenicity of A549 cells in vivo. In conclusion, silencing of AQP5 suppressed the growth of A549 cells in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that it may serve as a therapeutic target in lung cancer.

Angelica polysaccharides inhibit the growth and promote the apoptosis of U251 glioma cells in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

Angelica sinensis (Oliv) Diels (Apiaceae) is a traditional medicine that has been used for more than 2000 years in China. It exhibits various therapeutic effects including neuroprotective, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activities. Angelica polysaccharides (APs), bioactive constituents of Angelica have been shown to be responsible for these effects; however, the utility of APs for the treatment of glioma and their mechanism of action remain to be elucidated.

PURPOSE

In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effects of APs on a glioma cell line and their molecular mechanism of action.

STUDY DESIGN

U251 cells were utilized to confirm the effects of APs on glioma.

METHODS

The human glioblastoma cell line U251 was utilized for both in vitro and in vivo models, in which we tested the effects of APs. Flow cytometry, gene expression analysis, western blotting, and MTT assays were used to elucidate the effects of APs on cell proliferation, cell cycle, and apoptosis.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that APs significantly inhibited the growth and proliferation of U251 cells and induced their apoptosis. Furthermore, APs effectively reduced the expression of several cell cycle regulators: cyclins D1, B, and E. The apoptosis suppressor protein Bcl-2 was also downregulated, and the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins Bax and cleaved-caspase-3 increased. Additionally, APs inhibited the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signaling pathway and stimulated the expression of E-cadherin, thus prohibiting cell growth.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the results indicate that APs attenuate the tumorigenicity of glioma cells and promote their apoptosis by suppressing the TGF-β signaling pathway. The present study therefore provides evidence of the inhibitory effects of APs against glioma progression, and proposes their potential application as alternative therapeutic agents for glioma.

T11TS immunotherapy repairs PI3K-AKT signaling in T-cells: Clues toward enhanced T-cell survival in rat glioma model

Malignant glioma is the most fatal of astrocytic lineage tumors despite therapeutic advances. Onset and progression of gliomas is accompanied by severe debilitation of T-cell defense and T-cell survival. One of the chief contributors to T-cell survival downstream of activation is the PI3K-AKT pathway. Our prior studies showed that the novel immunotherapeutic molecule T11-target structure (T11TS) blocks T-cell apoptosis in glioma. We also showed activation of immunological synapse components and calcineurin-NFAT pathway following T11TS immunotherapy of glioma-bearing rats. This lead to investigations whether such T-cell activation upon T11TS therapy translates into activation of downstream PI3K/AKT signals which may be related to observed blockade of T-cell apoptosis. For the purpose, we assessed by flowcytometry and immunoblotting, expressions of PI3K, PDK1, AKT, p-AKT, and PTEN in splenic T-cells of normal, experimentally-induced glioma-bearing rats and glioma-bearing rats receiving first, second and third doses of T11TS. We also determined comparative nuclear translocation of NF-κB across groups. We found significant increases in T-cell expressions of PDK1, PI3K, and p-AKT in T11TS-treated animal groups compared to sharp downregulations in glioma. AKT levels remained unchanged across groups. PTEN levels declined sharply after T11TS immunotherapy. T11TS also caused enhanced NF-κB translocation to the T-cell nucleus compared to glioma group. Results showed heightened activation of the PI3K-AKT pathway in glioma-bearing rats following T11TS immunotherapy. These results illustrate the novel role of T11TS immunotherapy in ameliorating the PI3K pathway in T-cells in glioma-bearing animals to enhance T-cell survival, according greater defense against glioma. The study thus has far-reaching clinical outcomes.

T11TS repress gliomagenic apoptosis of bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells

Combating gliomagenic global immunosuppression is one of the emerging key for improving prognosis in malignant glioma. Apoptosis plays a pivotal role within the adult hematopoietic system particularly in regulating the cells of immune system. Gliomagenic regulation of apoptotic mediators within bone marrow milieu has not been elucidated. We previously demonstrated that administration of membrane glycopeptides T11 target structure (T11TS) not only rejuvenate bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells (BMHSCs) from glioma mediated hibernation by inhibiting gliomagenic overexpression of Ang-1/Tie-2 but also stimulate glioma mediated diminution of expression CD34, c-kit, and Sca-1 markers. In the present study, we investigated the impact of glioma on apoptotic signaling cascades of BMHSCs and consequences following T11TS therapy. Bone marrow smear and Annexin V staining confirm gliomagenic acceleration of apoptotic fate of BMHSCs whereas T11TS treatment in glioma-bearing rats disrupted apoptosis of BMHSCs. Flowcytometry, immunoblotting, and immunofluorescence imagining results revealed multi potent T11TS not only significantly downregulates gliomagenic overexpression of Fas, Fas L, Bid, and caspase-8, the pro-apoptotic extrinsic mediators but also strongly inhibits cytosolic release of cytochrome-c, Apf-1, and Bax to deactivate gliomagenic caspase-9, 3 the key intrinsic apoptotic mediators followed by up modulation of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 in glioma associated HSCs. T11TS is also able to diminish the perforin-granzyme B mediated apoptotic verdict of BMHSCs during gliomagenesis. The anti-apoptotic action of T11TS on glioma associated BMHSCs provide a crucial insight into how T11TS exerts its immunomodulatory action against glioma mediated immune devastation.

Proteasome inhibitors in cancer therapy: Treatment regimen and peripheral neuropathy as a side effect

Proteasomal system plays an important role in protein turnover, which is essential for homeostasis of cells. Besides degradation of oxidized proteins, it is involved in the regulation of many different signaling pathways. These pathways include mainly cell differentiation, proliferation, apoptosis, transcriptional activation and angiogenesis. Thus, proteasomal system is a crucial target for treatment of several diseases including neurodegenerative diseases, cystic fibrosis, atherosclerosis, autoimmune diseases, diabetes and cancer. Over the last fifteen years, proteasome inhibitors have been tested to highlight their mechanisms of action and used in the clinic to treat different types of cancer. Proteasome inhibitors are mainly used in combinational therapy along with classical chemo-radiotherapy. Several studies have proved their significant effects but serious side effects such as peripheral neuropathy, limits their use in required effective doses. Recent studies focus on peripheral neuropathy as the primary side effect of proteasome inhibitors. Therefore, it is important to delineate the underlying mechanisms of peripheral neuropathy and develop new inhibitors according to obtained data. This review will detail the role of proteasome inhibition in cancer therapy and development of peripheral neuropathy as a side effect. Additionally, new approaches to prevent treatment-limiting side effects will be discussed in order to help researchers in developing effective strategies to overcome side effects of proteasome inhibitors.

Disease relevance of T11TS-induced T-cell signal transduction through the CD2-mediated calcineurin-NFAT pathway: Perspectives in glioma immunotherapy

Malignant glioma is the most lethal of a wide array of CNS neoplasms. Its onset and progression are markedly associated with profound immunosupression and paralysis of T-cell survival and proliferation. Myriad immunotherapeutic strategies are presently used to target such T-cell anomalies in glioma. Our recent work has highlighted use of the novel glycopeptide, the CD2 ligand, T11 target structure (T11TS) as an immunotherapeutic agent against experimentally induced glioma in rats. We have shown that T11TS causes multi-target modulation of key components of the T-cell - antigen presenting cell (APC) immunological synapse. This consequently triggers T-cell activation so as to reverse glioma-induced changes to physiological levels. T11TS administration also causes CD2 upregulation. Earlier we also found T11TS to cause enhanced proliferation of both CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells in glioma conditions. These findings led us to believe that downstream CD2-stimulated "alternative pathway" of calcineurin-NFAT could be a possible target for modulation by T11TS. In the present paper we thus show that immunotherapy with T11TS induces a multi-targeted approach towards activation of this "alternative pathway" of T-cell signaling providing an immunotherapeutic advantage against glioma. We show here that T11TS immunotherapy causes positive modulations of the CD2 pathway-associated proteins, viz., p59fyn, protein kinase C-θ (PKC-θ), calcineurin and nuclear factor for activation of T-cells (NFAT) and hint that this may accord greater survival and proliferation advantage to T-cells of the glioma-bearing animals for augmented defence against glioma. These findings help open a molecular immunotherapeutic door - one which is directed towards clinical studies for glioma-immunotherapy using T11TS.

T11TS inhibits glioma angiogenesis by modulation of MMPs, TIMPs, with related integrin αv and TGF-β1 expressions

During glioma development, angiogenesis plays a crucial role in growth and vascularization of primary brain tumors. T11 target structure (T11TS), a bioactive molecule, has been documented as an anti-neoplastic agent in glioma-induced rats and also in human glioma in vitro. This novel molecule induces apoptosis of tumor cells by way of immune potentiation and impairs the glioma cell cycle, but its role in glioma angiogenesis has not been worked out in detail. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are enzymes promoting tumor angiogenesis by enzymatically remodeling the extracellular matrix and altering surface protein expression such as integrin αv and the matrix-bound proteins like TGF-β1. The present study was formulated to assess the efficacy of T11TS in the modulations of MMP-2 and -9 and their endogenous inhibitors (TIMP-1 and TIMP-2) as well as modulations of integrin αv and TGF-β1 in glioma-induced rats and also on the phenotypic markers of endothelial cells (CD31 and CD34). The parameters used were zymography, western blot, and flow cytometric analyses. It was observed that T11TS administration significantly downregulates the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 along with its ligand integrin αv and upregulates TIMP-1 and TIMP-2. In situ immunofluorescence and FACS results revealed that T11TS administration decreased the expression of the phenotypic markers (CD31/PECAM1, CD34), inhibiting the cell grip and also downregulating TGF-β1 expression (ELISA) from microglia cells in the glioma microenvironment. These results suggest that T11TS suppresses the expression of positive angiogenic growth factors and potentiates the expression of negative regulators in glioma-associated endothelial cells (ECs), resulting in an anti-angiogenic effect on glioma-induced angiogenesis.

T11TS impedes glioma angiogenesis by inhibiting VEGF signaling and pro-survival PI3K/Akt/eNOS pathway with concomitant upregulation of PTEN in brain endothelial cells

The crucial role of angiogenesis in malignant glioma progression makes it a potential target of therapeutic intervention in glioma. Previous studies from our lab showed that sheep erythrocyte membrane glycopeptide T11-target structure (T11TS) has potent anti-neoplastic and immune stimulatory effects in rodent glioma model. In the present study we investigated the anti-angiogenic potential of T11TS and deciphered the underlying molecular mechanism of its anti-angiogenic action in malignant glioma. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling is crucial for initiating tumor angiogenic responses. The present preclinical study was designed to evaluate the effect of T11TS therapy on VEGF and VEGFR-2 expression in glioma associated brain endothelial cells and to determine the effects of in vivo T11TS administration on expression of PTEN and downstream pro-survival PI3K/Akt/eNOS pathway proteins in glioma associated brain endothelial cells. T11TS therapy in rodent glioma model significantly downregulated expression of VEGF along with its receptor VEGFR-2 and inhibited the expression of pro-survival PI3K/Akt/eNOS proteins in glioma associated brain endothelial cells. Furthermore, T11TS therapy in glioma induced rats significantly upregulated brain endothelial cell PTEN expression, inhibited eNOS phosphorylation and production of nitric oxide in glioma associated brain endothelial cells. Taken together our findings suggest that T11TS can be introduced as an effective angiogenesis inhibitor in human glioma as T11TS targets multiple levels of angiogenic signaling cascade impeding glioma neovascularisation.

Transcriptome analysis of amoeboid and ramified microglia isolated from the corpus callosum of rat brain

Background

Microglia, the resident immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), have two distinct phenotypes in the developing brain: amoeboid form, known to be amoeboid microglial cells (AMC) and ramified form, known to be ramified microglial cells (RMC). The AMC are characterized by being proliferative, phagocytic and migratory whereas the RMC are quiescent and exhibit a slow turnover rate. The AMC transform into RMC with advancing age, and this transformation is indicative of the gradual shift in the microglial functions. Both AMC and RMC respond to CNS inflammation, and they become hypertrophic when activated by trauma, infection or neurodegenerative stimuli. The molecular mechanisms and functional significance of morphological transformation of microglia during normal development and in disease conditions is not clear. It is hypothesized that AMC and RMC are functionally regulated by a specific set of genes encoding various signaling molecules and transcription factors.

Results

To address this, we carried out cDNA microarray analysis using lectin-labeled AMC and RMC isolated from frozen tissue sections of the corpus callosum of 5-day and 4-week old rat brain respectively, by laser capture microdissection. The global gene expression profiles of both microglial phenotypes were compared and the differentially expressed genes in AMC and RMC were clustered based on their functional annotations. This genome wide comparative analysis identified genes that are specific to AMC and RMC.

Conclusions

The novel and specific molecules identified from the trancriptome explains the quiescent state functioning of microglia in its two distinct morphological states.

Comparative evaluation of T11 target structure and its deglycosylated derivative nullifies the importance of glycan moieties in immunotherapeutic efficacy

Sheep red blood cell (SRBC), a non-specific biological response modifier that has long been used as a classical antigen, has been shown to exert an immunomodulatory and anti-tumor activities in experimental animals. The active component of SRBC, which is responsible for such effects, was found to be a cell surface acidic glycoprotein molecule, known as T11 target structure (T11TS). In the present study, T11TS was isolated and purified to homogeneity using a five-step protocol involving isolation of sheep erythrocyte membrane from packed cell volume, 20% ammonium sulfate cut of the crude membrane proteins mixture, immunoaffinity purification using mouse anti-sheep CD58 mAb (L180/1) tagged matrix, preparative gel electrophoresis, and gel electroelution process. Finally, the purity and identity of the proteins were confirmed by the matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometric analysis. The in silico glycosylation site analysis showed that the extracellular domain contained three N-glycosylation sites (N-12, N-62, and N-111) and one O-glycosylation site (T-107). However, the experimental analysis negated the presence of O-linked glycan moieties on T11TS. To investigate the role of glycan moieties in the current immunotherapeutic regime, T11TS and its deglycosylated form (dT11TS) were administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) in N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea-induced immune-compromised mice at 0.4 mg/kg body weight. It was observed that both the forms of T11TS could activate the compromised immune status of mice by augmenting immune receptor expression (CD2, CD25, CD8, and CD11b), T-helper 1 shift of cytokine network, enhanced cytotoxicity, and phagocytosis activity. Therefore, the results nullify the active involvement of the N-linked glycan moieties in immunotherapeutic efficacy of T11TS.