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Antimicrobial Susceptibility and Frequency of bla and qnr Genes in Salmonella enterica Isolated from Slaughtered Pigs. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:antibiotics10121442. [PMID: 34943653 PMCID: PMC8698178 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10121442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella enterica is known as one of the most common foodborne pathogens worldwide. While salmonellosis is usually self-limiting, severe infections may require antimicrobial therapy. However, increasing resistance of Salmonella to antimicrobials, particularly fluoroquinolones and cephalosporins, is of utmost concern. The present study aimed to investigate the antimicrobial susceptibility of S. enterica isolated from pork, the major product in Philippine livestock production. Our results show that both the qnrS and the blaTEM antimicrobial resistance genes were present in 61.2% of the isolates. While qnrA (12.9%) and qnrB (39.3%) were found less frequently, co-carriage of blaTEM and one to three qnr subtypes was observed in 45.5% of the isolates. Co-carriage of blaTEM and blaCTX-M was also observed in 3.9% of the isolates. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed that the majority of isolates were non-susceptible to ampicillin and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, and 13.5% of the isolates were multidrug-resistant (MDR). MDR isolates belonged to either O:3,10, O:4, or an unidentified serogroup. High numbers of S. enterica carrying antimicrobial resistance genes (ARG), specifically the presence of isolates co-carrying resistance to both β-lactams and fluoroquinolones, raise a concern on antimicrobial use in the Philippine hog industry and on possible transmission of ARG to other bacteria.
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Validating the AMRFinder Tool and Resistance Gene Database by Using Antimicrobial Resistance Genotype-Phenotype Correlations in a Collection of Isolates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2019; 63:AAC.00483-19. [PMID: 31427293 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00483-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 655] [Impact Index Per Article: 131.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major public health problem that requires publicly available tools for rapid analysis. To identify AMR genes in whole-genome sequences, the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) has produced AMRFinder, a tool that identifies AMR genes using a high-quality curated AMR gene reference database. The Bacterial Antimicrobial Resistance Reference Gene Database consists of up-to-date gene nomenclature, a set of hidden Markov models (HMMs), and a curated protein family hierarchy. Currently, it contains 4,579 antimicrobial resistance proteins and more than 560 HMMs. Here, we describe AMRFinder and its associated database. To assess the predictive ability of AMRFinder, we measured the consistency between predicted AMR genotypes from AMRFinder and resistance phenotypes of 6,242 isolates from the National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS). This included 5,425 Salmonella enterica, 770 Campylobacter spp., and 47 Escherichia coli isolates phenotypically tested against various antimicrobial agents. Of 87,679 susceptibility tests performed, 98.4% were consistent with predictions. To assess the accuracy of AMRFinder, we compared its gene symbol output with that of a 2017 version of ResFinder, another publicly available resistance gene detection system. Most gene calls were identical, but there were 1,229 gene symbol differences (8.8%) between them, with differences due to both algorithmic differences and database composition. AMRFinder missed 16 loci that ResFinder found, while ResFinder missed 216 loci that AMRFinder identified. Based on these results, AMRFinder appears to be a highly accurate AMR gene detection system.
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Song Q, Zhang D, Gao H, Wu J. Salmonella Species' Persistence and Their High Level of Antimicrobial Resistance in Flooded Man-Made Rivers in China. Microb Drug Resist 2018; 24:1404-1411. [PMID: 29750591 DOI: 10.1089/mdr.2017.0316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Man-made rivers, owing to proximity to human habitats, facilitate transmission of salmonellosis to humans. To determine the contamination situation by Salmonella in flooded man-made rivers and thereafter the exposure risk to public health, we investigated the prevalence of Salmonella species and their antimicrobial resistance in such rivers, as well as the relationship between the incidence of local infectious diarrhea cases and the number of Salmonella isolates from patients. After a heavy flood, 95 isolates of 13 Salmonella serotypes were isolated from 80 river water samples. The two most prevalent serotypes were Typhimurium and Derby. Eight Salmonella serotypes were newly detected after the flood. Overall, 50 isolates were resistant to ampicillin and/or cefotaxime and carried at least blaTEM. Twelve isolates of serotypes Typhimurium, Derby, Rissen, and Indiana were extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) producing and carried at least one of blaOXA and blaCTX-M-like genes. Twelve isolates of serotypes Typhimurium, Derby, Agona, Rissen, and Indiana were resistant to ciprofloxacin and had gyrA mutations. Isolates of Typhimurium, Derby, and Indiana were concurrently ciprofloxacin resistant and ESBL producing. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis illustrates the circulation of two dominant clones of Salmonella Typhimurium isolates among patients, river, and food. High prevalence of various highly pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella serotypes shows that man-made rivers are prone to heavy contamination with Salmonella, and as a result put public health at greater risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qifa Song
- 1 Department of Microbiology, Ningbo Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention , Ningbo, People's Republic of China
| | - Danyang Zhang
- 1 Department of Microbiology, Ningbo Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention , Ningbo, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong Gao
- 1 Department of Microbiology, Ningbo Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention , Ningbo, People's Republic of China
| | - Junhua Wu
- 2 Ningbo Women and Children's Hospital , Ningbo, People's Republic of China
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Tyson GH, Zhao S, Li C, Ayers S, Sabo JL, Lam C, Miller RA, McDermott PF. Establishing Genotypic Cutoff Values To Measure Antimicrobial Resistance in Salmonella. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2017; 61:e02140-16. [PMID: 27993845 PMCID: PMC5328538 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02140-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) has transformed our understanding of antimicrobial resistance, helping us to better identify and track the genetic mechanisms underlying phenotypic resistance. Previous studies have demonstrated high correlations between phenotypic resistance and the presence of known resistance determinants. However, there has never been a large-scale assessment of how well resistance genotypes correspond to specific MICs. We performed antimicrobial susceptibility testing and WGS of 1,738 nontyphoidal Salmonella strains to correlate over 20,000 MICs with resistance determinants. Using these data, we established what we term genotypic cutoff values (GCVs) for 13 antimicrobials against Salmonella For the drugs we tested, we define a GCV as the highest MIC of isolates in a population devoid of known acquired resistance mechanisms. This definition of GCV is distinct from epidemiological cutoff values (ECVs or ECOFFs), which currently differentiate wild-type from non-wild-type strains based on MIC distributions alone without regard to genetic information. Due to the large number of isolates involved, we observed distinct MIC distributions for isolates with different resistance gene alleles, including for ciprofloxacin and tetracycline, suggesting the potential to predict MICs based on WGS data alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory H Tyson
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Veterinary Medicine, Office of Research, Laurel, Maryland, USA
| | - Shaohua Zhao
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Veterinary Medicine, Office of Research, Laurel, Maryland, USA
| | - Cong Li
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Veterinary Medicine, Office of Research, Laurel, Maryland, USA
| | - Sherry Ayers
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Veterinary Medicine, Office of Research, Laurel, Maryland, USA
| | - Jonathan L Sabo
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Veterinary Medicine, Office of Research, Laurel, Maryland, USA
| | - Claudia Lam
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Veterinary Medicine, Office of Research, Laurel, Maryland, USA
| | - Ron A Miller
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Veterinary Medicine, Office of New Animal Drug Evaluation, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Patrick F McDermott
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Veterinary Medicine, Office of Research, Laurel, Maryland, USA
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Abstract
Three mechanisms for plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance (PMQR) have been discovered since 1998. Plasmid genes qnrA, qnrB, qnrC, qnrD, qnrS, and qnrVC code for proteins of the pentapeptide repeat family that protects DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV from quinolone inhibition. The qnr genes appear to have been acquired from chromosomal genes in aquatic bacteria, are usually associated with mobilizing or transposable elements on plasmids, and are often incorporated into sul1-type integrons. The second plasmid-mediated mechanism involves acetylation of quinolones with an appropriate amino nitrogen target by a variant of the common aminoglycoside acetyltransferase AAC(6')-Ib. The third mechanism is enhanced efflux produced by plasmid genes for pumps QepAB and OqxAB. PMQR has been found in clinical and environmental isolates around the world and appears to be spreading. The plasmid-mediated mechanisms provide only low-level resistance that by itself does not exceed the clinical breakpoint for susceptibility but nonetheless facilitates selection of higher-level resistance and makes infection by pathogens containing PMQR harder to treat.
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Tyson GH, McDermott PF, Li C, Chen Y, Tadesse DA, Mukherjee S, Bodeis-Jones S, Kabera C, Gaines SA, Loneragan GH, Edrington TS, Torrence M, Harhay DM, Zhao S. WGS accurately predicts antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli. J Antimicrob Chemother 2015; 70:2763-9. [PMID: 26142410 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkv186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2015] [Accepted: 06/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of WGS in identifying resistance genotypes of MDR Escherichia coli and whether these correlate with observed phenotypes. METHODS Seventy-six E. coli strains were isolated from farm cattle and measured for phenotypic resistance to 15 antimicrobials with the Sensititre(®) system. Isolates with resistance to at least four antimicrobials in three classes were selected for WGS using an Illumina MiSeq. Genotypic analysis was conducted with in-house Perl scripts using BLAST analysis to identify known genes and mutations associated with clinical resistance. RESULTS Over 30 resistance genes and a number of resistance mutations were identified among the E. coli isolates. Resistance genotypes correlated with 97.8% specificity and 99.6% sensitivity to the identified phenotypes. The majority of discordant results were attributable to the aminoglycoside streptomycin, whereas there was a perfect genotype-phenotype correlation for most antibiotic classes such as tetracyclines, quinolones and phenicols. WGS also revealed information about rare resistance mechanisms, such as structural mutations in chromosomal copies of ampC conferring third-generation cephalosporin resistance. CONCLUSIONS WGS can provide comprehensive resistance genotypes and is capable of accurately predicting resistance phenotypes, making it a valuable tool for surveillance. Moreover, the data presented here showing the ability to accurately predict resistance suggest that WGS may be used as a screening tool in selecting anti-infective therapy, especially as costs drop and methods improve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory H Tyson
- Division of Animal and Food Microbiology, Office of Research, Center for Veterinary Medicine, US Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Patrick F McDermott
- Division of Animal and Food Microbiology, Office of Research, Center for Veterinary Medicine, US Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Cong Li
- Division of Animal and Food Microbiology, Office of Research, Center for Veterinary Medicine, US Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Yuansha Chen
- Division of Animal and Food Microbiology, Office of Research, Center for Veterinary Medicine, US Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Daniel A Tadesse
- Division of Animal and Food Microbiology, Office of Research, Center for Veterinary Medicine, US Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Sampa Mukherjee
- Division of Animal and Food Microbiology, Office of Research, Center for Veterinary Medicine, US Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Sonya Bodeis-Jones
- Division of Animal and Food Microbiology, Office of Research, Center for Veterinary Medicine, US Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Claudine Kabera
- Division of Animal and Food Microbiology, Office of Research, Center for Veterinary Medicine, US Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Stuart A Gaines
- Division of Animal and Food Microbiology, Office of Research, Center for Veterinary Medicine, US Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Guy H Loneragan
- International Center for Food Industry Excellence, Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - Tom S Edrington
- Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Mary Torrence
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, US Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Dayna M Harhay
- US Meat Animal Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Clay Center, NE, USA
| | - Shaohua Zhao
- Division of Animal and Food Microbiology, Office of Research, Center for Veterinary Medicine, US Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
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Foley SL, Johnson TJ, Ricke SC, Nayak R, Danzeisen J. Salmonella pathogenicity and host adaptation in chicken-associated serovars. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2013; 77:582-607. [PMID: 24296573 PMCID: PMC3973385 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00015-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteric pathogens such as Salmonella enterica cause significant morbidity and mortality. S. enterica serovars are a diverse group of pathogens that have evolved to survive in a wide range of environments and across multiple hosts. S. enterica serovars such as S. Typhi, S. Dublin, and S. Gallinarum have a restricted host range, in which they are typically associated with one or a few host species, while S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium have broad host ranges. This review examines how S. enterica has evolved through adaptation to different host environments, especially as related to the chicken host, and continues to be an important human pathogen. Several factors impact host range, and these include the acquisition of genes via horizontal gene transfer with plasmids, transposons, and phages, which can potentially expand host range, and the loss of genes or their function, which would reduce the range of hosts that the organism can infect. S. Gallinarum, with a limited host range, has a large number of pseudogenes in its genome compared to broader-host-range serovars. S. enterica serovars such as S. Kentucky and S. Heidelberg also often have plasmids that may help them colonize poultry more efficiently. The ability to colonize different hosts also involves interactions with the host's immune system and commensal organisms that are present. Thus, the factors that impact the ability of Salmonella to colonize a particular host species, such as chickens, are complex and multifactorial, involving the host, the pathogen, and extrinsic pressures. It is the interplay of these factors which leads to the differences in host ranges that we observe today.
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ArmA methyltransferase in a monophasic Salmonella enterica isolate from food. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 55:5262-6. [PMID: 21859937 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00308-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The 16S rRNA methyltransferase ArmA is a worldwide emerging determinant that confers high-level resistance to most clinically relevant aminoglycosides. We report here the identification and characterization of a multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica subspecies I.4,12:i:- isolate recovered from chicken meat sampled in a supermarket on February 2009 in La Reunion, a French island in the Indian Ocean. Susceptibility testing showed an unusually high-level resistance to gentamicin, as well as to ampicillin, expanded-spectrum cephalosporins and amoxicillin-clavulanate. Molecular analysis of the 16S rRNA methyltransferases revealed presence of the armA gene, together with bla(TEM-1), bla(CMY-2), and bla(CTX-M-3). All of these genes could be transferred en bloc through conjugation into Escherichia coli at a frequency of 10(-5) CFU/donor. Replicon typing and S1 pulsed-field gel electrophoresis revealed that the armA gene was borne on an ~150-kb broad-host-range IncP plasmid, pB1010. To elucidate how armA had integrated in pB1010, a PCR mapping strategy was developed for Tn1548, the genetic platform for armA. The gene was embedded in a Tn1548-like structure, albeit with a deletion of the macrolide resistance genes, and an IS26 was inserted within the mel gene. To our knowledge, this is the first report of ArmA methyltransferase in food, showing a novel route of transmission for this resistance determinant. Further surveillance in food-borne bacteria will be crucial to determine the role of food in the spread of 16S rRNA methyltransferase genes worldwide.
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Veldman K, Cavaco LM, Mevius D, Battisti A, Franco A, Botteldoorn N, Bruneau M, Perrin-Guyomard A, Cerny T, De Frutos Escobar C, Guerra B, Schroeter A, Gutierrez M, Hopkins K, Myllyniemi AL, Sunde M, Wasyl D, Aarestrup FM. International collaborative study on the occurrence of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance in Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli isolated from animals, humans, food and the environment in 13 European countries. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66:1278-86. [DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkr084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Rodríguez-Martínez JM, Velasco C, Pascual Á, Cano ME, Martínez-Martínez L, Martínez-Martínez L, Pascual Á. Plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance: an update. J Infect Chemother 2011; 17:149-82. [DOI: 10.1007/s10156-010-0120-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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García-Fernández A, Carattoli A. Plasmid double locus sequence typing for IncHI2 plasmids, a subtyping scheme for the characterization of IncHI2 plasmids carrying extended-spectrum beta-lactamase and quinolone resistance genes. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 65:1155-61. [PMID: 20356905 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkq101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES IncHI2 plasmids are frequently encountered in clinical enterobacterial strains associated with the dissemination of relevant antimicrobial resistance genes. These plasmids are usually >250 kb, and technical difficulties can impair plasmid DNA purification and comparison by restriction fragment length polymorphism. We analysed the available IncHI2 whole DNA plasmid sequences to devise a rapid typing scheme to categorize the members of this plasmid family into homogeneous groups. METHODS We compared the available full IncHI2 plasmid sequences, identifying conserved and variable regions within the backbone of this plasmid family, to devise an IncHI2 typing method based on sequence typing and multiplex PCRs. A collection of IncHI2 plasmids carrying extended-spectrum beta-lactamase and quinolone resistance genes, identified in strains from different sources (animals and humans) and geographical origins, was tested by these typing systems. RESULTS We devised a plasmid double locus sequence typing (pDLST) scheme and a multiplex PCR discriminating IncHI2 plasmid variants. These systems were tested on a collection of IncHI2 plasmids, demonstrating that the plasmids carrying blaCTX-M-2 and blaCTX-M-9 belonged to two major plasmid variants, which were highly conserved among different enterobacterial species disseminated in several European countries. CONCLUSIONS The ability to recognize and subcategorize plasmids by pDLST in homogeneous groups on the basis of their phylogenetic relatedness can be helpful to analyse their distribution in nature and to discover of their evolutionary origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurora García-Fernández
- Department of Infectious, Parasitic and Immune-Mediated Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
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Veldman K, Dierikx C, van Essen-Zandbergen A, van Pelt W, Mevius D. Characterization of multidrug-resistant, qnrB2-positive and extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase-producing Salmonella Concord and Salmonella Senftenberg isolates. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 65:872-5. [PMID: 20200038 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkq049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To characterize plasmids and resistance genes of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Salmonella Senftenberg and Salmonella Concord isolated from patients in the Netherlands. METHODS The resistance genes of four MDR Salmonella isolates (three Salmonella Concord and one Salmonella Senftenberg) were identified by miniaturized microarray, PCR and sequencing. Plasmids were characterized by S1 nuclease-PFGE and PCR-based replicon typing (PBRT). Linkage between plasmids and genes was determined by conjugation experiments and microarray analysis. The genetic relationship between the three Salmonella Concord isolates was determined by XbaI-PFGE. RESULTS A large variety of resistance genes was detected, including qnrB2 and the beta-lactamase genes bla(TEM-1) and bla(SHV-12) in all isolates; moreover all Salmonella Concord isolates also harboured bla(CTX-M-15). Salmonella Senftenberg harboured a large IncHI2 plasmid. The three Salmonella Concord isolates harboured two large plasmids typed as IncHI2 and IncA/C. CONCLUSIONS We detected the first plasmid-mediated MDR Salmonella isolates in the Netherlands harbouring both qnr and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) genes. In Salmonella Senftenberg one large plasmid (IncHI2) and in Salmonella Concord two large plasmids (IncHI2 and IncA/C) were responsible for the multidrug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kees Veldman
- Central Veterinary Institute of Wageningen UR, PO Box 65, 8200 AB Lelystad, The Netherlands.
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Fortini D, García-Fernández A, Veldman K, Mevius D, Carattoli A. Novel genetic environment of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance gene qnrB2 in Salmonella Bredeney from poultry. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009; 64:1332-4. [PMID: 19808233 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkp356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Fortini
- Department of Infectious, Parasitic and Immune-Mediated Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
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