Comparing Populations of Western Corn Rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Regions With and Without a History of Injury to Cry3 Corn

Movement Ecology of Adult Western Corn Rootworm: Implications for Management

Movement of adult western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, is of fundamental importance to this species' population dynamics, ecology, evolution, and interactions with its environment, including cultivated cornfields. Realistic parameterization of dispersal components of models is needed to predict rates of range expansion, development, and spread of resistance to control measures and improve pest and resistance management strategies. However, a coherent understanding of western corn rootworm movement ecology has remained elusive because of conflicting evidence for both short- and long-distance lifetime dispersal, a type of dilemma observed in many species called Reid's paradox. Attempts to resolve this paradox using population genetic strategies to estimate rates of gene flow over space likewise imply greater dispersal distances than direct observations of short-range movement suggest, a dilemma called Slatkin's paradox. Based on the wide-array of available evidence, we present a conceptual model of adult western corn rootworm movement ecology under the premise it is a partially migratory species. We propose that rootworm populations consist of two behavioral phenotypes, resident and migrant. Both engage in local, appetitive flights, but only the migrant phenotype also makes non-appetitive migratory flights, resulting in observed patterns of bimodal dispersal distances and resolution of Reid's and Slatkin's paradoxes.

Management of Insect Pests with Bt Crops in the United States

Genetically engineered corn and cotton that produce insecticidal toxins derived from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have been used to manage insect pests in the United States and elsewhere. In some cases, this has led to regional suppression of pest populations and pest eradication within the United States, and these outcomes were associated with reductions in conventional insecticides and increased profits for farmers. In other instances, pests evolved resistance to multiple Bt traits, compromising the capacity of Bt crops to manage pests and leading to increased feeding injury to crops in the field. Several aspects of pest biology and pest-crop interactions were associated with cases where pests remained susceptible versus instances where pests evolved resistance. The viability of future transgenic traits can be improved by learning from these past outcomes. In particular, efforts should be made to delay resistance by increasing the prevalence of refuges and using integrated pest management.

Evidence of western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) field-evolved resistance to Cry3Bb1 + Cry34/35Ab1 maize in Nebraska

BACKGROUND

Western corn rootworm (WCR; Diabrotica virgifera virgifera) field-evolved resistance to transgenic maize expressing the Cry3Bb1 protein derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has been confirmed across the United States Corn Belt. Although use of pyramided hybrids expressing Cry3Bb1 + Cry34/35Ab1 has increased in recent years to mitigate existing WCR Bt resistance, susceptibility of Nebraska WCR populations to this rootworm-Bt pyramid has not been assessed. Plant-based bioassays were used to characterize the susceptibility of WCR populations to Cry3Bb1 and Cry3Bb1 + Cry34/35Ab1 maize. Populations were collected from areas of northeastern Nebraska with a history of planting Bt maize that expressed Cry3Bb1 and Cry34/35Ab1.

RESULTS

Significant differences in mean corrected survival among populations within Bt hybrids indicated a mosaic of WCR susceptibility to Cry3Bb1 + Cry34/35Ab1 and Cry3Bb1 maize occurred in the landscape. All field populations exhibited some level of resistance to one or both Bt hybrids when compared to susceptible laboratory control populations in bioassays. Most WCR populations exhibited incomplete resistance to Cry3Bb1 + Cry34/35Ab1 maize (92%) and complete resistance to Cry3Bb1 maize (79%).

CONCLUSION

The present study confirms the first cases of field-evolved resistance to Cry3Bb1 + Cry34/35Ab1 maize in Nebraska and documents a landscape-wide WCR Cry3Bb1 resistance pattern in areas characterized by long-term continuous maize production and associated planting of Cry3Bb1 hybrids. Use of a multi-tactic integrated pest management approach is needed in areas of continuous maize production to slow or mitigate resistance evolution to Bt maize. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Resistance to Bt Maize by Western Corn Rootworm: Effects of Pest Biology, the Pest-Crop Interaction and the Agricultural Landscape on Resistance

Simple Summary

Since the 1990s, an important innovation in the management of agricultural pest insects has been the commercial cultivation of genetically engineered crops that produce insecticidal toxins, which in turn act to protect plants from feeding injury by insects. To date, these transgenic crops, which include cotton, maize and soybean, have produced insecticidal proteins derived from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Benefits associated with planting of Bt crops include reduced feeding injury from pest insects, decreased yield losses from pests and less harm to the environment. However, the evolution of Bt resistance by insect pests can diminish these benefits. One serious insect pest currently managed with Bt maize is the western corn rootworm. The larval stage of this insect feeds on maize roots and can substantially reduce yield. In some parts of the US Corn Belt, western corn rootworm rapidly adapted to Bt maize, and currently, some populations show resistance to all commercially available Bt traits. This review summarizes the time course of resistance development in the field, key factors contributing to resistance evolution, and steps that biotechnology companies, farmers and regulatory agencies can take to delay additional cases of pest resistance to current and future transgenic technologies.

Abstract

The western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, is among the most serious pests of maize in the United States. Since 2003, transgenic maize that produces insecticidal toxins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has been used to manage western corn rootworm by killing rootworm larvae, which feed on maize roots. In 2009, the first cases of field-evolved resistance to Bt maize were documented. These cases occurred in Iowa and involved maize that produced Bt toxin Cry3Bb1. Since then, resistance has expanded to include other geographies and additional Bt toxins, with some rootworm populations displaying resistance to all commercially available Bt traits. Factors that contributed to field-evolved resistance likely included non-recessive inheritance of resistance, minimal fitness costs of resistance and limited adult dispersal. Additionally, because maize is the primary agricultural crop on which rootworm larvae can survive, continuous maize cultivation, in particular continuous cultivation of Bt maize, appears to be another key factor facilitating resistance evolution. More diversified management of rootworm larvae, including rotating fields out of maize production and using soil-applied insecticide with non-Bt maize, in addition to planting refuges of non-Bt maize, should help to delay the evolution of resistance to current and future transgenic traits.

Western corn rootworm abundance, injury to corn, and resistance to Cry3Bb1 in the local landscape of previous problem fields

Western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), is a major pest of corn in the United States. Transgenic corn expressing insecticidal proteins derived from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is an important tool used to manage rootworm populations. However, field-evolved resistance to Bt threatens this technology. In areas where resistance is present, resistant individuals may travel from one field to a neighboring field, spreading resistance alleles. An important question that remains to be answered is the extent to which greater-than-expected root injury (i.e., >1 node of injury) to Cry3Bb1 corn from western corn rootworm is associated with rootworm abundance, root injury, and levels of resistance in neighboring fields. To address this question, fields with a history of greater-than-expected injury to Cry3Bb1 corn (focal fields) and surrounding fields (< 2.2 km from focal fields) were examined to quantify rootworm abundance, root injury, and resistance to Cry3Bb1 corn. Additionally, use of Bt corn and soil insecticide use for the previous six years were quantified for each field. Resistance to Cry3Bb1 was present in all fields assayed, even though focal fields had grown more Cry3 corn and less non-Bt corn than surrounding fields. This finding implies that some movement of resistance alleles had occurred between focal fields and surrounding fields. Overall, our data suggest that resistance to Cry3Bb1 in the landscape has been influenced by both local rootworm movement and field-level management tactics.