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Campbell JB, López-Martínez G. Anoxia elicits the strongest stimulatory protective response in insect low-oxygen hormesis. CURRENT OPINION IN TOXICOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cotox.2022.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Mostafa M, Ibn Amor A, Admane N, Anfora G, Bubici G, Verrastro V, Scarano L, El Moujabber M, Baser N. Reduction of Post-Harvest Injuries Caused by Drosophila suzukii in Some Cultivars of Sweet Cherries Using a High Carbon Dioxide Level and Cold Storage. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12111009. [PMID: 34821808 PMCID: PMC8619616 DOI: 10.3390/insects12111009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Efficient strategies are required in sweet cherry fruits to control the spotted wing drosophila (SWD), Drosophila suzukii, due to its adverse economic effect on farmers. Cold storage (CS) and storage with elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) are environmentally safe approaches for the pest control of stored fresh fruit. These strategies are effective in controlling a wide variety of insect species, without allowing toxic compounds to accumulate. The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a post-harvest application of CO2 treatment at 50%, cold treatment at 4 °C (CT), and a combination of both (CO2-CT) in controlling the early stages of SWD within four cultivars of freshly harvested cherry fruit, namely "Burlat-Bigarreau", "Giorgia", "Ferrovia", and "Lapins". In addition, an evaluation of the quality attributes of the cherries (skin firmness, berry firmness, strong soluble material, and titratable acidity) was carried out at harvest and after 10 and 20 days of storage. All treatments significantly reduced the rate of emergence of SWD when compared to the control (untreated cherry at 24 °C), and 100% SWD mortality was obtained in Burlat-Bigarreau (CO2-CT). In addition, over the entire storage time, the quality parameters were preserved in the samples stored at 4 °C and in the samples with combined treatments in comparison with the control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manal Mostafa
- CIHEAM-IAMB—International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies, 70010 Bari, Italy; (M.M.); (A.I.A.); (N.A.); (V.V.); (M.E.M.)
| | - Abir Ibn Amor
- CIHEAM-IAMB—International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies, 70010 Bari, Italy; (M.M.); (A.I.A.); (N.A.); (V.V.); (M.E.M.)
| | - Naouel Admane
- CIHEAM-IAMB—International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies, 70010 Bari, Italy; (M.M.); (A.I.A.); (N.A.); (V.V.); (M.E.M.)
| | - Gianfranco Anfora
- Centre Agriculture Food Environment, University of Trento, 38098 San Michele all’Adige, Italy;
- Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund Mach, 38098 San Michele all’Adige, Italy
| | - Giovanni Bubici
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto per la Protezione Sostenibile delle Piante, via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy;
| | - Vincenzo Verrastro
- CIHEAM-IAMB—International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies, 70010 Bari, Italy; (M.M.); (A.I.A.); (N.A.); (V.V.); (M.E.M.)
| | - Luciano Scarano
- Scuola di Scienze Agrarie SAFE, Università degli Studi della Basilicata, 85100 Potenza, Italy;
| | - Maroun El Moujabber
- CIHEAM-IAMB—International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies, 70010 Bari, Italy; (M.M.); (A.I.A.); (N.A.); (V.V.); (M.E.M.)
| | - Nuray Baser
- CIHEAM-IAMB—International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies, 70010 Bari, Italy; (M.M.); (A.I.A.); (N.A.); (V.V.); (M.E.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-3200-175-5682
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Cultural Control of Drosophila suzukii in Small Fruit-Current and Pending Tactics in the U.S. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12020172. [PMID: 33671153 PMCID: PMC7923098 DOI: 10.3390/insects12020172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a science-based decision-making process that uses a variety of management approaches to increase farm profitability while protecting human health and the environment, with pesticides used only as a last resort. An important alternative to pesticides, cultural controls modify production practices and/or the crop environment to reduce pest populations and damage. This review presents the current state of knowledge and implementation of cultural controls to manage the invasive vinegar fly, spotted-wing drosophila, in U.S. small fruit crops. Spotted-wing drosophila causes direct damage by laying its eggs into ripening fruit. Because it reproduces quickly, uses a variety of cultivated and wild fruits, and is highly mobile, spotted-wing drosophila is difficult to manage. Developing effective and economic cultural controls to manage spotted-wing drosophila will help improve IPM programs. Abstract Spotted-wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura) (Diptera: Drosophilidae), a vinegar fly of Asian origin, has emerged as a devastating pest of small and stone fruits throughout the United States. Tolerance for larvae is extremely low in fresh market fruit, and management is primarily achieved through repeated applications of broad-spectrum insecticides. These applications are neither economically nor environmentally sustainable, and can limit markets due to insecticide residue restrictions, cause outbreaks of secondary pests, and select for insecticide resistance. Sustainable integrated pest management programs include cultural control tactics and various nonchemical approaches for reducing pest populations that may be useful for managing D. suzukii. This review describes the current state of knowledge and implementation for different cultural controls including preventative tactics such as crop selection and exclusion as well as strategies to reduce habitat favorability (pruning; mulching; irrigation), alter resource availability (harvest frequency; sanitation), and lower suitability of fruit postharvest (cooling; irradiation). Because climate, horticultural practices, crop, and market underlie the efficacy, feasibility, and affordability of cultural control tactics, the potential of these tactics for D. suzukii management is discussed across different production systems.
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Paithankar JG, Ghodke TS, Patil RK. Insight into the evolutionary profile of radio-resistance among insects having intrinsically evolved defence against radiation toxicity. Int J Radiat Biol 2021; 98:1012-1024. [PMID: 33264042 DOI: 10.1080/09553002.2020.1859153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Ionizing radiation (IR) has wide-ranging applications in various fields. In agriculture, pest control is one of the important applications, because insect pests have become a threat to the global agriculture industry. IR are used routinely to prevent crop loss and to protect stored food commodities. Radio-sterilization and disinfestation treatments are commonly used procedures for insect pest control. From various studies on insect radio-sterilization and disinfestation, it has been established that compared to vertebrates' insects have high levels of radiation resistance. Therefore, to achieve adequate radio-sterilization/disinfestation; exposure to high doses of IR is necessary. However, studies over decades made a presumption that radiation resistance is general among insects. Recent studies have shown that some insect orders are having high IR resistance and some insect orders are sensitive to IR. These studies have clarified that radiation resistance is not uniform throughout insect class. The present review is an attempt to insight at the evolutionary profile of insect species studied for radio-sterilization and disinfestation treatment and are having the trait of radio-resistance. From various studies on insect radiation resistance and after phylogenetic analysis of insect species it appears that the evolutionary near species have drastically different levels of radio-resistance and trait of radiation resistance appears to be independent of insect evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jagdish Gopal Paithankar
- Division of Environmental Health and Toxicology, Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research (NUCSER), Nitte (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, India
| | - Tanhaji Sandu Ghodke
- Centre for Applications of Radioisotopes and Radiation Technology (CARRT), Mangalore University, Mangalore, India.,Department of Applied Zoology, Mangalore University, Mangalore, India
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Radioprotective Effects on Late Third-Instar Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae) Larvae in Low-Oxygen Atmospheres. INSECTS 2020; 11:insects11080526. [PMID: 32806714 PMCID: PMC7469153 DOI: 10.3390/insects11080526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Revised: 08/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary The oriental fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel is a highly invasive fruit fly that causes extensive damage to many fruits and vegetables. Irradiation treatment is an economically effective and promising treatment measure. However, treatment efficacy is affected by the presence of low oxygen, i.e., mangoes are treated in modified atmosphere package. In order to investigate the reduced (radioprotective) effects on insects and determine its critical O2 level, third-instar B. dorsalis larvae were irradiated by X-rays at the doses of 8 to 64 Gy with intervals of 8 Gy. The treatments were conducted under ambient air or low-oxygen atomospheres (0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8% O2 and nitrogen). No adult emergence from treatments at 64 Gy in pure nitrogen or 56 Gy under other atmospheres, resulted in significant difference in tolerance. The results from statistical analyses indicate that differences in tolerance to radiation were significant in 0% and 2% O2 but insignificant in 4%, 6%, and 8% O2 environments when compared with radiation in ambient air. Therefore, the critical threshold is an O2 level of ≥4% and <6%, but a maximum radiation dose of 14 Gy can compensate for the radioprotective effects when the oriental fruit fly is treated in low-oxygen atmospheres. Abstract Ionizing radiation creates free radicals, the effect of which is enhanced by the presence of oxygen; a low oxygen level produces radioprotective effects for insects compared with irradiation in ambient air. Modified (controlled) atmosphere packaging is used for maintaining quality and shelf-life extension; therefore, treatment efficacy may be affected, and there is a need to determine the critical O2 levels that may cause radioprotective effects. Late third-instar Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) larvae were irradiated in bags filled with ambient or low-oxygen air (0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8% O2) and were exposed to radiation doses of 8 to 64 Gy with intervals of 8 Gy. Efficacy was measured by the prevention of adult emergence. Dose–response data on mortality (failure of adult emergence) were analyzed via two-way ANOVA (analysis of variance), ANCOVA (analysis of covariance), and probit regression. The difference in radiotolerance was only significant in 0% O2 atmospheres through two-way ANOVA; therefore, the 95% confidence limits (CLs) of lethal dose ratios at LD99 were used to determine significant differences between treatments at different O2 levels. The differences in radiotolerance were significant in 0% and 2% O2 but insignificant in 4%, 6%, and 8% O2 environments when compared with radiation in ambient air. The critical threshold of radioprotective effects for late third-instar B. dorsalis larvae is an O2 level of ≥4% and <6%, but a maximum radiation dose of 14 Gy can compensate for this effect during phytosanitary irradiation treatment.
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Phytosanitary irradiation: Does modified atmosphere packaging or controlled atmosphere storage creating a low oxygen environment threaten treatment efficacy? Radiat Phys Chem Oxf Engl 1993 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2020.108874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Chen C, Condon CH, Boardman L, Meagher RL, Jeffers LA, Beam A, Bailey WD, Hahn DA. Critical PO 2 as a diagnostic biomarker for the effects of low-oxygen modified and controlled atmospheres on phytosanitary irradiation treatments in the cabbage looper Trichoplusia ni (Hübner). PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2020; 76:2333-2341. [PMID: 32003078 DOI: 10.1002/ps.5768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Revised: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phytosanitary irradiation is a sustainable alternative to chemical fumigants for disinfesting fresh commodities from insect pests. However, irradiating insects in modified atmospheres with very low oxygen (<1 kPa O2 ) has repeatedly been shown to increase radioprotective response. Thus, there is a concern that modified atmosphere packaging could reduce the efficacy of phytosanitary irradiation. One hurdle slowing the widespread application of phytosanitary irradiation is a lack of knowledge about how moderate levels of hypoxia relevant to the modified atmosphere packaging of most fresh commodities (3-10 kPa O2 ) may affect phytosanitary irradiation treatments. Therefore, we hypothesize that critical PO2 (Pcrit ), the level of oxygen at which an insect's metabolism becomes impaired, can be used as a diagnostic biomarker to predict the induction of a radioprotective response. RESULTS Using the cabbage looper Trichoplusia ni (Hübner), we show that there is a substantial increase in radiation resistance when larvae are irradiated in atmospheres more hypoxic than their Pcrit (3.3 kPa O2 ). These data are consistent with our hypothesis that Pcrit could be used as a diagnostic biomarker for what levels of hypoxia may induce radioprotective effects that could impact phytosanitary irradiation treatments. CONCLUSION We propose that the relationship between Pcrit and radioprotective effects could allow us to build a framework for predicting the effects of low-oxygen atmospheres on the efficacy of phytosanitary irradiation. However, more widespread studies across pest species are still needed to test the generality of this idea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Chen
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Catriona H Condon
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Leigh Boardman
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Robert L Meagher
- USDA-ARS, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Laura A Jeffers
- USDA-APHIS-PPQ Center for Plant Health Science and Technology, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Andrea Beam
- USDA-APHIS-PPQ Center for Plant Health Science and Technology, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Woodward D Bailey
- USDA-APHIS-PPQ Center for Plant Health Science and Technology, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Daniel A Hahn
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Dias VS, Hallman GJ, Martínez-Barrera OY, Hurtado NV, Cardoso AAS, Parker AG, Caravantes LA, Rivera C, Araújo AS, Maxwell F, Cáceres-Barrios CE, Vreysen MJB, Myers SW. Modified Atmosphere Does Not Reduce the Efficacy of Phytosanitary Irradiation Doses Recommended for Tephritid Fruit Flies. INSECTS 2020; 11:insects11060371. [PMID: 32549285 PMCID: PMC7348963 DOI: 10.3390/insects11060371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Phytosanitary irradiation (PI) has been successfully used to disinfest fresh commodities and facilitate international agricultural trade. Critical aspects that may reduce PI efficacy must be considered to ensure the consistency and effectiveness of approved treatment schedules. One factor that can potentially reduce PI efficacy is irradiation under low oxygen conditions. This factor is particularly important because storage and packaging of horticultural commodities under low oxygen levels constitute practices widely used to preserve their quality and extend their shelf life. Hence, international organizations and regulatory agencies have considered the uncertainties regarding the efficacy of PI doses for insects infesting fresh commodities stored under low oxygen levels as a rationale for restricting PI application under modified atmosphere. Our research examines the extent to which low oxygen treatments can reduce the efficacy of phytosanitary irradiation for tephritids naturally infesting fruits. The effects of normoxia (21% O2), hypoxia (~5% O2), and severe hypoxia (< 0.5% O2) on radiation sensitivity of third instars of Anastrepha fraterculus (sensu lato), A. ludens (Loew), Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), and Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) were evaluated and compared at several gamma radiation doses. Our findings suggest that, compared to normoxia, hypoxic and severe-hypoxic conditioning before and during irradiation can increase adult emergence and contribute to advancement of larval development of tephritid fruit flies only at low radiation doses that are not used as phytosanitary treatments. With phytosanitary irradiation doses approved internationally for several tephritids, low oxygen treatments applied before and during irradiation did not increase the emergence rates of any fruit fly species evaluated, and all treated insects died as coarctate larvae. Thus, the findings of our research support a re-evaluation of restrictions related to phytosanitary irradiation application under modified atmospheres targeting tephritid fruit flies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa S. Dias
- Insect Pest Control Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, IAEA, Wagramer Strasse 5, 1400 Vienna, Austria; (O.Y.M.-B.); (N.V.H.); (A.A.S.C.); (A.G.P.); (L.A.C.); (C.R.); (A.S.A.); (F.M.); (C.E.C.-B.); (M.J.B.V.)
- Correspondence: (V.S.D.); (G.J.H.)
| | - Guy J. Hallman
- Phytosanitation, 3917 Estancia Drive, Oceanside, CA 92058, USA
- Correspondence: (V.S.D.); (G.J.H.)
| | - Olga Y. Martínez-Barrera
- Insect Pest Control Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, IAEA, Wagramer Strasse 5, 1400 Vienna, Austria; (O.Y.M.-B.); (N.V.H.); (A.A.S.C.); (A.G.P.); (L.A.C.); (C.R.); (A.S.A.); (F.M.); (C.E.C.-B.); (M.J.B.V.)
| | - Nick V. Hurtado
- Insect Pest Control Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, IAEA, Wagramer Strasse 5, 1400 Vienna, Austria; (O.Y.M.-B.); (N.V.H.); (A.A.S.C.); (A.G.P.); (L.A.C.); (C.R.); (A.S.A.); (F.M.); (C.E.C.-B.); (M.J.B.V.)
| | - Amanda A. S. Cardoso
- Insect Pest Control Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, IAEA, Wagramer Strasse 5, 1400 Vienna, Austria; (O.Y.M.-B.); (N.V.H.); (A.A.S.C.); (A.G.P.); (L.A.C.); (C.R.); (A.S.A.); (F.M.); (C.E.C.-B.); (M.J.B.V.)
| | - Andrew G. Parker
- Insect Pest Control Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, IAEA, Wagramer Strasse 5, 1400 Vienna, Austria; (O.Y.M.-B.); (N.V.H.); (A.A.S.C.); (A.G.P.); (L.A.C.); (C.R.); (A.S.A.); (F.M.); (C.E.C.-B.); (M.J.B.V.)
| | - Luis A. Caravantes
- Insect Pest Control Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, IAEA, Wagramer Strasse 5, 1400 Vienna, Austria; (O.Y.M.-B.); (N.V.H.); (A.A.S.C.); (A.G.P.); (L.A.C.); (C.R.); (A.S.A.); (F.M.); (C.E.C.-B.); (M.J.B.V.)
| | - Camilo Rivera
- Insect Pest Control Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, IAEA, Wagramer Strasse 5, 1400 Vienna, Austria; (O.Y.M.-B.); (N.V.H.); (A.A.S.C.); (A.G.P.); (L.A.C.); (C.R.); (A.S.A.); (F.M.); (C.E.C.-B.); (M.J.B.V.)
| | - Alexandre S. Araújo
- Insect Pest Control Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, IAEA, Wagramer Strasse 5, 1400 Vienna, Austria; (O.Y.M.-B.); (N.V.H.); (A.A.S.C.); (A.G.P.); (L.A.C.); (C.R.); (A.S.A.); (F.M.); (C.E.C.-B.); (M.J.B.V.)
| | - Florence Maxwell
- Insect Pest Control Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, IAEA, Wagramer Strasse 5, 1400 Vienna, Austria; (O.Y.M.-B.); (N.V.H.); (A.A.S.C.); (A.G.P.); (L.A.C.); (C.R.); (A.S.A.); (F.M.); (C.E.C.-B.); (M.J.B.V.)
| | - Carlos E. Cáceres-Barrios
- Insect Pest Control Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, IAEA, Wagramer Strasse 5, 1400 Vienna, Austria; (O.Y.M.-B.); (N.V.H.); (A.A.S.C.); (A.G.P.); (L.A.C.); (C.R.); (A.S.A.); (F.M.); (C.E.C.-B.); (M.J.B.V.)
| | - Marc J. B. Vreysen
- Insect Pest Control Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, IAEA, Wagramer Strasse 5, 1400 Vienna, Austria; (O.Y.M.-B.); (N.V.H.); (A.A.S.C.); (A.G.P.); (L.A.C.); (C.R.); (A.S.A.); (F.M.); (C.E.C.-B.); (M.J.B.V.)
| | - Scott W. Myers
- USDA, APHIS, PPQ, Science and Technology, Otis Laboratory 1398 W. Truck Rd., Buzzards Bay, MA 02542, USA;
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Cao Y, Xu K, Zhu X, Bai Y, Yang W, Li C. Role of Modified Atmosphere in Pest Control and Mechanism of Its Effect on Insects. Front Physiol 2019; 10:206. [PMID: 30914968 PMCID: PMC6422892 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pests not only attack field crops during the growing season, but also damage grains and other food products stored in granaries. Modified or controlled atmospheres (MAs or CAs) with higher or lower concentrations of atmospheric gases, mainly oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (O3), and nitric oxide (NO), provide a cost-effective method to kill target pests and protect stored products. In this review, the most recent discoveries in the field of MAs are discussed, with a focus on pest control as well as current MA technologies. Although MAs have been used for more than 30 years in pest control and play a role in storage pest management, the specific mechanisms by which insects are affected by and adapt to low O2 (hypoxia) and high carbon CO2 (hypercapnia) are not completely understood. Insect tolerance to hypoxia/anoxia and hypercapnia involves a decrease in aerobic metabolism, including decreased NADPH enzyme activity, and subsequently, decreases in glutathione production and catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione-S-transferase, and glutathione peroxidase activities, as well as increases in carboxyl esterase and phosphatase activities. In addition, hypoxia induces energy and nutrient production, and in adapted insects, glycolysis and pyruvate carboxylase fluxes are downregulated, accompanied with O2 consumption and acetate production. Consequently, genes encoding various signal transduction pathway components, including epidermal growth factor, insulin, Notch, and Toll/Imd signaling, are downregulated. We review the changes in insect energy and nutrient sources, metabolic enzymes, and molecular pathways in response to modified O2, CO2, NO, and O3 concentrations, as well as the role of MAs in pest control. This knowledge will be useful for applying MAs in combination with temperature control for pest control in stored food products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Cao
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Rare Animal and Economic Insect of the Mountainous Region, Department of Biology and Engineering of Environment, Guiyang University, Guiyang, China
| | - Kangkang Xu
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Rare Animal and Economic Insect of the Mountainous Region, Department of Biology and Engineering of Environment, Guiyang University, Guiyang, China
| | - Xiaoye Zhu
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Rare Animal and Economic Insect of the Mountainous Region, Department of Biology and Engineering of Environment, Guiyang University, Guiyang, China
| | - Yu Bai
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Rare Animal and Economic Insect of the Mountainous Region, Department of Biology and Engineering of Environment, Guiyang University, Guiyang, China
| | - Wenjia Yang
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Rare Animal and Economic Insect of the Mountainous Region, Department of Biology and Engineering of Environment, Guiyang University, Guiyang, China
| | - Can Li
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Rare Animal and Economic Insect of the Mountainous Region, Department of Biology and Engineering of Environment, Guiyang University, Guiyang, China
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