1
|
Anstead GM. History, Rats, Fleas, and Opossums. II. The Decline and Resurgence of Flea-Borne Typhus in the United States, 1945-2019. Trop Med Infect Dis 2020; 6:2. [PMID: 33379251 PMCID: PMC7839051 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed6010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Flea-borne typhus, due to Rickettsia typhi and R. felis, is an infection causing fever, headache, rash, and diverse organ manifestations that can result in critical illness or death. This is the second part of a two-part series describing the rise, decline, and resurgence of flea-borne typhus (FBT) in the United States over the last century. These studies illustrate the influence of historical events, social conditions, technology, and public health interventions on the prevalence of a vector-borne disease. Flea-borne typhus was an emerging disease, primarily in the Southern USA and California, from 1910 to 1945. The primary reservoirs in this period were the rats Rattus norvegicus and Ra. rattus and the main vector was the Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis). The period 1930 to 1945 saw a dramatic rise in the number of reported cases. This was due to conditions favorable to the proliferation of rodents and their fleas during the Depression and World War II years, including: dilapidated, overcrowded housing; poor environmental sanitation; and the difficulty of importing insecticides and rodenticides during wartime. About 42,000 cases were reported between 1931-1946, and the actual number of cases may have been three-fold higher. The number of annual cases of FBT peaked in 1944 at 5401 cases. American involvement in World War II, in the short term, further perpetuated the epidemic of FBT by the increased production of food crops in the American South and by promoting crowded and unsanitary conditions in the Southern cities. However, ultimately, World War II proved to be a powerful catalyst in the control of FBT by improving standards of living and providing the tools for typhus control, such as synthetic insecticides and novel rodenticides. A vigorous program for the control of FBT was conducted by the US Public Health Service from 1945 to 1952, using insecticides, rodenticides, and environmental sanitation and remediation. Government programs and relative economic prosperity in the South also resulted in slum clearance and improved housing, which reduced rodent harborage. By 1956, the number of cases of FBT in the United States had dropped dramatically to only 98. Federally funded projects for rat control continued until the mid-1980s. Effective antibiotics for FBT, such as the tetracyclines, came into clinical practice in the late 1940s. The first diagnostic test for FBT, the Weil-Felix test, was found to have inadequate sensitivity and specificity and was replaced by complement fixation in the 1940s and the indirect fluorescent antibody test in the 1980s. A second organism causing FBT, R. felis, was discovered in 1990. Flea-borne typhus persists in the United States, primarily in South and Central Texas, the Los Angeles area, and Hawaii. In the former two areas, the opossum (Didelphis virginiana) and cats have replaced rats as the primary reservoirs, with the cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis) now as the most important vector. In Hawaii, 73% of cases occur in Maui County because it has lower rainfall than other areas. Despite great successes against FBT in the post-World War II era, it has proved difficult to eliminate because it is now associated with our companion animals, stray pets, opossums, and the cat flea, an abundant and non-selective vector. In the new millennium, cases of FBT are increasing in Texas and California. In 2018-2019, Los Angeles County experienced a resurgence of FBT, with rats as the reservoir.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory M Anstead
- Medical Service, South Texas Veterans Health Care System and Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ajith Y, Dimri U, Madhesh E, Gopalakrishnan A, Verma MR, Samad HA, Reena KK, Chaudhary AK, Devi G, Bosco J. Influence of weather patterns and air quality on ecological population dynamics of ectoparasites in goats. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIOMETEOROLOGY 2020; 64:1731-1742. [PMID: 32556594 DOI: 10.1007/s00484-020-01952-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Revised: 05/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Ectoparasitism has a damaging impact on the economy of goat production in India, but the factors influencing its distribution and dynamics are less explored. The present study was designed to investigate the influence of environmental factors like weather and air quality parameters on the occurrence of different types of ectoparasites in goats of two agro-climatic regions of India, viz. the Upper Gangetic Plain (UGP) and the Western Himalayas (WH). The prevalence survey for ectoparasitism among goats was conducted during the four distinct climatic seasons (winter, summer, monsoon, autumn) in both regions. The season-wise data of weather parameters (maximum and minimum temperature, relative humidity in morning and evening, sunrise and sunset time, mean daily temperature and relative humidity, daily variation in temperature and relative humidity, and day length) and air quality parameters (air quality index (AQI), particulate matter 2.5 μm (PM2.5), particulate matter 10 μm (PM10)) of both regions were analyzed in relation with the ectoparasitic prevalence pattern of corresponding regions. The results depict a noticeable correlation between the studied parameters and seasonal variation in the occurrence of each type of ectoparasites. This outcome on the interaction of studied parameters and ectoparasitism is intriguing and it opens a huge scope for future studies on the biometeorological aspects of host-parasite ecological interplay and evolutionary biology. The better understanding of climatological aspects of ectoparasite occurrences helps goat farmers in formulating appropriate timely intervention strategies for the economic control of ectoparasites, which in turn tackles ectoparasiticidal drug resistance and reduces threat of vector-borne diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Y Ajith
- Division of Medicine, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, UP, 243122, India.
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Rajiv Gandhi South Campus, Mirzapur, UP, 231001, India.
- Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India.
| | - U Dimri
- Division of Medicine, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, UP, 243122, India
| | - E Madhesh
- Division of Medicine, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, UP, 243122, India
| | - A Gopalakrishnan
- Division of Medicine, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, UP, 243122, India
| | - Med Ram Verma
- Division of Livestock Economics, Statistics and Information Technology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, UP, 243122, India
| | - H A Samad
- Division of Physiology & Climatology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, UP, 243122, India
| | - K K Reena
- Division of Parasitology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, UP, 243122, India
| | - A K Chaudhary
- Division of Medicine, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, UP, 243122, India
| | - G Devi
- Division of Medicine, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, UP, 243122, India
| | - J Bosco
- Division of Physiology & Climatology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, UP, 243122, India
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Rust MK, Blagburn BL, Denholm I, Dryden MW, Payne P, Hinkle NC, Kopp S, Williamson M. International Program to Monitor Cat Flea Populations for Susceptibility to Imidacloprid. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 55:1245-1253. [PMID: 29931332 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjy092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
An international team of scientists and veterinarians was assembled in 1999 to develop a monitoring program to determine the susceptibility of cat fleas, Ctenocephalides felis felis (Bouché) (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae), to imidacloprid. Cat flea eggs were collected, shipped to laboratories, and tested for their susceptibility to imidacloprid. Over 3,000 C. felis populations were collected from 2002 to 2017 from 10 different countries. Of these, 66.3% were collected from cats and 33.7% from dogs. C. f. felis populations (n = 2,200) were bioassayed by exposing cat flea eggs and the emerging larvae to a Diagnostic Dose (DD) of 3 ppm imidacloprid in larval rearing medium. Flea eggs hatched and developed in the untreated controls in 1,837 of the isolates (83.5%) bioassayed. Flea isolates (n = 61) that had ≥5% survival at the DD of 3 ppm were retested with a second DD of 3 ppm. None of them had ≥5% survival to the second dose of 3 ppm. Of the 1,837 valid C. felis isolates tested, there has been no evidence of a decreased susceptibility to imidacloprid over the past 17 yr. The methods outlined in this article should provide an acceptable protocol for testing many of the new active ingredients that have been registered for cat flea control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M K Rust
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA
| | - B L Blagburn
- Department of Pathobiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL
| | - I Denholm
- Plant and Invertebrate Ecology Division, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - M W Dryden
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS
| | - P Payne
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS
| | - N C Hinkle
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - S Kopp
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
| | - M Williamson
- Department of Biological and Ecological Chemistry, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Rust MK. The Biology and Ecology of Cat Fleas and Advancements in Their Pest Management: A Review. INSECTS 2017; 8:E118. [PMID: 29077073 PMCID: PMC5746801 DOI: 10.3390/insects8040118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Revised: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The cat flea Ctenocephalides felis felis (Bouché) is the most important ectoparasite of domestic cats and dogs worldwide. It has been two decades since the last comprehensive review concerning the biology and ecology of C. f. felis and its management. Since then there have been major advances in our understanding of the diseases associated with C. f. felis and their implications for humans and their pets. Two rickettsial diseases, flea-borne spotted fever and murine typhus, have been identified in domestic animal populations and cat fleas. Cat fleas are the primary vector of Bartonella henselae (cat scratch fever) with the spread of the bacteria when flea feces are scratched in to bites or wounds. Flea allergic dermatitis (FAD) common in dogs and cats has been successfully treated and tapeworm infestations prevented with a number of new products being used to control fleas. There has been a continuous development of new products with novel chemistries that have focused on increased convenience and the control of fleas and other arthropod ectoparasites. The possibility of feral animals serving as potential reservoirs for flea infestations has taken on additional importance because of the lack of effective environmental controls in recent years. Physiological insecticide resistance in C. f. felis continues to be of concern, especially because pyrethroid resistance now appears to be more widespread. In spite of their broad use since 1994, there is little evidence that resistance has developed to many of the on-animal or oral treatments such as fipronil, imidacloprid or lufenuron. Reports of the perceived lack of performance of some of the new on-animal therapies have been attributed to compliance issues and their misuse. Consequentially, there is a continuing need for consumer awareness of products registered for cats and dogs and their safety.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael K Rust
- Department of Entomology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Silva GACD, Lins LA, Irala MJC, Cárcamo MC, Ribeiro PB. Does hair coat length affect flea infestation in naturally infested dogs? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 25:527-530. [PMID: 27925064 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612016070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The Siphonaptera are parasitic insects of endothermic animals and Ctenocephalides felis and Pulex irritans are important parasites of dogs. This study evaluated the effect of hair coat length and time of year on the population size of C. felis and P. irritans in naturally infested dogs. Fleas were collected from 14 dogs on a monthly basis for a year (February 2015 to January 2016) at a rural property in Bagé, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The dogs were divided into two groups based on hair coat length: short coat (coat length < 5.0 cm, n= 7) and long coat (coat length > 5.0 cm, n= 7). In total, 2057 fleas were collected, 1541 of which were C. felis (74.91%) and 516 were P. irritans (25.08%). The number of C. felis and P. irritans individuals was significantly affected by hair coat length and time of year. The variation in flea numbers over the study months was higher in long-coated than in short-coated dogs for the two flea species and flea numbers increased with increasing mean monthly temperatures. The results provide a better understanding of behavioral aspects of flea communities in dogs and may help develop control strategies targeting these parasites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Luciana Araujo Lins
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade da Região da Campanha - URCAMP, Bagé, RS, Brasil
| | - Márcio Josué Costa Irala
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade da Região da Campanha - URCAMP, Bagé, RS, Brasil
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Yiguan W, Jie T, Qiyong L, Cannan S, Wenlong K, Henglu D, Cheng X, Wenzhu Z, Fajun C, Fengxia M. Influence of Bloodmeal Host on Blood Feeding, Egg Production, and Offspring Sex Ratio of Ctenocephalides felis felis (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae). JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2016; 53:888-893. [PMID: 27106931 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjw026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 02/25/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis felis (Bouché), feeds on different host species, causing annoyance or transmitting disease agents. In this study, the influence of the host of the cat flea on blood feeding, egg production, and sex ratio of the offspring was investigated. Two strains of C. felis were domesticated on either rats or mice for >10 yr in the laboratory, and in this study, these fleas were placed in the following groups and fed on rats or mice continuously: Group A (rat-domesticated C. felis with rats as host); Group B (rat-domesticated C. felis with mice as host); Group C (mouse-domesticated C. felis with rats as host); and Group D (mouse-domesticated C. felis with mice as host). In total, 240 adult fleas were in each group at a sex ratio of female:male = 1.7:1. The mean egg production per flea of Groups A, B, C, and D was 55.0, 19.2, 62.5, and 13.2, respectively. A significant correlation between egg production and the volume of blood consumed was detected for Groups A, B, C, and D. The sex ratio (F:M) of the offspring in Groups A and C was 2.07 and 2.11, respectively, whereas in Groups B and D, the ratio was 1.04 and 1.03, respectively. In conclusion, the C. felis with rats as host consumed more blood, produced more eggs, and had higher sex ratios of the offspring than those with mice as the host.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wang Yiguan
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, WHO Collaborating Centre for Vector Surveillance and Management, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 155 Changbai Rd., Changping District, Beijing, China 102206 (; ; ; ; ; ; )
| | - Tian Jie
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, WHO Collaborating Centre for Vector Surveillance and Management, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 155 Changbai Rd., Changping District, Beijing, China 102206 (; ; ; ; ; ; )
- The Base for Control and Prevention of Plague and Brucellosis, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 85 Haiming West Rd, Baicheng, Jilin Province, China 137000
| | - Liu Qiyong
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, WHO Collaborating Centre for Vector Surveillance and Management, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 155 Changbai Rd., Changping District, Beijing, China 102206 (; ; ; ; ; ; )
| | - Shi Cannan
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, WHO Collaborating Centre for Vector Surveillance and Management, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 155 Changbai Rd., Changping District, Beijing, China 102206 (; ; ; ; ; ; )
| | - Kai Wenlong
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, WHO Collaborating Centre for Vector Surveillance and Management, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 155 Changbai Rd., Changping District, Beijing, China 102206 (; ; ; ; ; ; )
| | - Duan Henglu
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, WHO Collaborating Centre for Vector Surveillance and Management, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 155 Changbai Rd., Changping District, Beijing, China 102206 (; ; ; ; ; ; )
| | - Xu Cheng
- The Base for Control and Prevention of Plague and Brucellosis, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 85 Haiming West Rd, Baicheng, Jilin Province, China 137000
| | - Zhang Wenzhu
- Laboratory Animal Center, Office of Laboratory Management, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China 102206
| | - Chen Fajun
- Department of Entomology, College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China 210095 , and
| | - Meng Fengxia
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, WHO Collaborating Centre for Vector Surveillance and Management, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 155 Changbai Rd., Changping District, Beijing, China 102206 (; ; ; ; ; ; ),
| |
Collapse
|