Wheat cytoplasmic arginine tRNA isoacceptor with a U*CG anticodon is an efficient UGA suppressor in vitro

DALRD3 encodes a protein mutated in epileptic encephalopathy that targets arginine tRNAs for 3-methylcytosine modification

In mammals, a subset of arginine tRNA isoacceptors are methylated in the anticodon loop by the METTL2 methyltransferase to form the 3-methylcytosine (m3C) modification. However, the mechanism by which METTL2 identifies specific tRNA arginine species for m3C formation as well as the biological role of m3C in mammals is unknown. Here, we show that human METTL2 forms a complex with DALR anticodon binding domain containing 3 (DALRD3) protein to recognize particular arginine tRNAs destined for m3C modification. DALRD3-deficient human cells exhibit nearly complete loss of the m3C modification in tRNA-Arg species. Notably, we identify a homozygous nonsense mutation in the DALRD3 gene that impairs m3C formation in human patients exhibiting developmental delay and early-onset epileptic encephalopathy. These findings uncover an unexpected function for the DALRD3 protein in the targeting of distinct arginine tRNAs for m3C modification and suggest a crucial biological role for DALRD3-dependent tRNA modification in proper neurological development.

Mitochondrial genome evolution in species belonging to the Phialocephala fortinii s.l. - Acephala applanata species complex

Background

Mitochondrial (mt) markers are successfully applied in evolutionary biology and systematics because mt genomes often evolve faster than the nuclear genomes. In addition, they allow robust phylogenetic analysis based on conserved proteins of the oxidative phosphorylation system. In the present study we sequenced and annotated the complete mt genome of P. subalpina, a member of the Phialocephala fortinii s.l. – Acephala applanata species complex (PAC). PAC belongs to the Helotiales, which is one of the most diverse groups of ascomycetes including more than 2,000 species. The gene order was compared to deduce the mt genome evolution in the Pezizomycotina. Genetic variation in coding and intergenic regions of the mtDNA was studied for PAC to assess the usefulness of mt DNA for species diagnosis.

Results

The mt genome of P. subalpina is 43,742 bp long and codes for 14 mt genes associated with the oxidative phosphorylation. In addition, a GIY-YIG endonuclease, the ribosomal protein S3 (Rps3) and a putative N-acetyl-transferase were recognized. A complete set of tRNA genes as well as the large and small rRNA genes but no introns were found. All protein-coding genes were confirmed by EST sequences. The gene order in P. subalpina deviated from the gene order in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, the only other helotialean species with a fully sequenced and annotated mt genome. Gene order analysis within Pezizomycotina suggests that the evolution of gene orders is mostly driven by transpositions. Furthermore, sequence diversity in coding and non-coding mtDNA regions in seven additional PAC species was pronounced and allowed for unequivocal species diagnosis in PAC.

Conclusions

The combination of non-interrupted ORFs and EST sequences resulted in a high quality annotation of the mt genome of P. subalpina, which can be used as a reference for the annotation of other mt genomes in the Helotiales. In addition, our analyses show that mtDNA loci will be the marker of choice for future analysis of PAC communities.

An extensive study of mutation and selection on the wobble nucleotide in tRNA anticodons in fungal mitochondrial genomes

Two alternative hypotheses aim to predict the wobble nucleotide of tRNA anticodons in mitochondrion. The codon-anticodon adaptation hypothesis predicts that the wobble nucleotide of tRNA anticodon should evolve toward maximizing the Watson-Crick base pairing with the most frequently used codon within each synonymous codon family. In contrast, the wobble versatility hypothesis argues that the nucleotide at the wobble site should be occupied by a nucleotide most versatile in wobble pairing, i.e., the wobble site of the tRNA anticodon should be G for NNY codon families and U for NNR and NNN codon families (where Y stands for C or U, R for A or G, and N for any nucleotide). We examined codon usage and anticodon wobble sites in 36 fungal genomes to evaluate these two alternative hypotheses and identify exceptional cases that deserve new explanations. While the wobble versatility hypothesis is generally supported, there are interesting exceptions involving tRNA(Arg) translating the CGN codon family, tRNA(Trp) translating the UGR codon family, and tRNA(Met) translating the AUR codon family. Our results suggest that the potential to suppress stop codons, the historical inertia, and the conflict between translation initiation and elongation can all contribute to determining the wobble nucleotide of tRNA anticodons.

Control of gag-pol gene expression in the Candida albicans retrotransposon Tca2

Background

In the C. albicans retrotransposon Tca2, the gag and pol ORFs are separated by a UGA stop codon, 3' of which is a potential RNA pseudoknot. It is unclear how the Tca2 gag UGA codon is bypassed to allow pol expression. However, in other retroelements, translational readthrough of the gag stop codon can be directed by its flanking sequence, including a 3' pseudoknot.

Results

The hypothesis was tested that in Tca2, gag stop codon flanking sequences direct translational readthrough and synthesis of a gag-pol fusion protein. Sequence from the Tca2 gag-UGA-pol junction (300 nt) was inserted between fused lacZ and luciferase (luc) genes in a Saccharomyces cerevisiae dual reporter construct. Although downstream of UGA, luc was expressed, but its expression was unaffected by inserting additional stop codons at the 3' end of lacZ. Luc expression was instead being driven by a previously unknown minor promoter activity within the gag-pol junction region. Evidence together indicated that junction sequence alone cannot direct UGA readthrough. Using reporter genes in C. albicans, the activities of this gag-pol junction promoter and the Tca2 long terminal repeat (LTR) promoter were compared. Of the two promoters, only the LTR promoter was induced by heat-shock, which also triggers retrotransposition. Tca2 pol protein, epitope-tagged in C. albicans to allow detection, was also heat-shock induced, indicating that pol proteins were expressed from a gag-UGA-pol RNA.

Conclusion

This is the first demonstration that the LTR promoter directs Tca2 pol protein expression, and that pol proteins are translated from a gag-pol RNA, which thus requires a mechanism for stop codon bypass. However, in contrast to most other retroelement and viral readthrough signals, immediate gag UGA-flanking sequences were insufficient to direct stop readthrough in S. cerevisiae, indicating non-canonical mechanisms direct gag UGA bypass in Tca2.

A comparative genomics analysis of codon reassignments reveals a link with mitochondrial proteome size and a mechanism of genetic code change via suppressor tRNAs

Using a comparative genomics approach we demonstrate a negative correlation between the number of codon reassignments undergone by 222 mitochondrial genomes and the mitochondrial genome size, the number of mitochondrial ORFs, and the sizes of the large and small subunit mitochondrial rRNAs. In addition, we show that the TGA-to-tryptophan codon reassignment, which has occurred 11 times in mitochondrial genomes, is found in mitochondrial genomes smaller than those which have not undergone the reassignment. We therefore propose that mitochondrial codon reassignments occur in a wide range of phyla, particularly in Metazoa, due to a reduced "proteomic constraint" on the mitochondrial genetic code, compared to the nuclear genetic code. The reduced proteomic constraint reflects the small size of the mitochondrial-encoded proteome and allows codon reassignments to occur with less likelihood of lethality. In addition, we demonstrate a striking link between nonsense codon reassignments and the decoding properties of naturally occurring nonsense suppressor tRNAs. This suggests that natural preexisting nonsense suppression facilitated nonsense codon reassignments and constitutes a novel mechanism of genetic code change. These findings explain for the first time the identity of the stop codons and amino acids reassigned in mitochondrial and nuclear genomes. Nonsense suppressor tRNAs provided the raw material for nonsense codon reassignments, implying that the properties of the tRNA anticodon have dictated the identity of nonsense codon reassignments.

Misreading of termination codons in eukaryotes by natural nonsense suppressor tRNAs

Translational stop codon readthrough provides a regulatory mechanism of gene expression that is extensively utilised by positive-sense ssRNA viruses. The misreading of termination codons is achieved by a variety of naturally occurring suppressor tRNAs whose structure and function is the subject of this survey. All of the nonsense suppressors characterised to date (with the exception of selenocysteine tRNA) are normal cellular tRNAs that are primarily needed for reading their cognate sense codons. As a consequence, recognition of stop codons by natural suppressor tRNAs necessitates unconventional base pairings in anticodon-codon interactions. A number of intrinsic features of the suppressor tRNA contributes to the ability to read non-cognate codons. Apart from anticodon-codon affinity, the extent of base modifications within or 3' of the anticodon may up- or down-regulate the efficiency of suppression. In order to out-compete the polypeptide chain release factor an absolute prerequisite for the action of natural suppressor tRNAs is a suitable nucleotide context, preferentially at the 3' side of the suppressed stop codon. Three major types of viral readthrough sites, based on similar sequences neighbouring the leaky stop codon, can be defined. It is discussed that not only RNA viruses, but also the eukaryotic host organism might gain some profit from cellular suppressor tRNAs.

Identification and structural characterization of nucleus-encoded transfer RNAs imported into wheat mitochondria

Despite its large size (200-2400 kilobase pairs), the mitochondrial genome of angiosperms does not encode the minimal set of tRNAs required to support mitochondrial protein synthesis. Here we report the identification of cytosolic-like tRNAs in wheat mitochondria using a method involving quantitative hybridization to distinguish among three tRNA classes: (i) those encoded by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and localized in mitochondria, (ii) those encoded by nuclear DNA and located in the cytosol, and (iii) those encoded by nuclear DNA and found in both the cytosol and mitochondria. The latter class comprises tRNA species that are considered to be imported into mitochondria to compensate for the deficiency of mtDNA-encoded tRNAs. In a comprehensive survey of the wheat mitochondrial tRNA population, we identified 14 such imported tRNAs, the structural characterization of which is presented here. These imported tRNAs complement 16 mtDNA-encoded tRNAs, for a total of at least 30 distinct tRNA species in wheat mitochondria. Considering differences in the set of mtDNA-encoded and imported tRNAs in the mitochondria of various land plants, the import system must be able to adapt relatively rapidly over evolutionary time with regard to the particular cytosolic-like tRNAs that are brought into mitochondria.

A highly conserved mechanism of regulated ribosome stalling mediated by fungal arginine attenuator peptides that appears independent of the charging status of arginyl-tRNAs

The Arg attenuator peptide (AAP) is an evolutionarily conserved peptide involved in Arg-specific negative translational control. It is encoded as an upstream open reading frame (uORF) in fungal mRNAs specifying the small subunit of Arg-specific carbamoyl phosphate synthetase. We examined the functions of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae CPA1 and Neurospora crassa arg-2 AAPs using translation extracts from S. cerevisiae, N. crassa, and wheat germ. Synthetic RNA containing AAP and firefly luciferase (LUC) sequences were used to program translation; analyses of LUC activity indicated that the AAPs conferred Arg-specific negative regulation in each system. The AAPs functioned either as uORFs or fused in-frame at the N terminus of LUC. Mutant AAPs lacking function in vivo did not function in vitro. Therefore, trans-acting factors conferring AAP-mediated regulation are in both fungal and plant systems. Analyses of ribosome stalling in the fungal extracts by primer extension inhibition (toeprint) assays showed that these AAPs acted similarly to stall ribosomes in the region immediately distal to the AAP coding region in response to Arg. The regulatory effect increased as the Arg concentration increased; all of the arginyl-tRNAs examined appeared maximally charged at low Arg concentrations. Therefore, AAP-mediated Arg-specific regulation appeared independent of the charging status of arginyl-tRNA.

Nucleotide sequences and functional characterization of two tobacco UAG suppressor tRNA(Gln) isoacceptors and their genes

We isolated and sequenced the two major tRNA(Gln) isoacceptors with CUG and UmUG anticodons from the cytoplasm of Nicotiana rustica. These are the first tRNAs(Gln) of nuclear origin characterized in plants. The tRNA(Gln) sequences were used to design probes for the isolation of the corresponding genes from a nuclear DNA library of N. rustica. The two cloned Nicotiana tRNA(Gln) genes, coding for either of the two isoacceptors, are efficiently transcribed in HeLa cell nuclear extract. In vitro translation in the presence of purified Nicotiana tRNAs(Gln) was carried out in a wheat germ extract partially depleted of endogenous tRNAs. Cytoplasmic (cyt) tRNA(Gln)CUG and to a lesser extent cyt tRNA(Gln)UmUG stimulated readthrough over the UAG stop codon present in the tobacco mosaic virus-specific context. The two tRNA(Gln) isoacceptors are the second class of natural UAG suppressors identified in plants, in addition to cyt tRNA(Tyr)GpsiA which has previously been characterized as the first natural UAG suppressor.

The hypotrichous ciliate Euplotes octocarinatus has only one type of tRNACys with GCA anticodon encoded on a single macronuclear DNA molecule

Deviations from the universal genetic code have evolved independently several times in ciliated protozoa. Thus, in some species UAA and UAG are no longer used as termination codons, but are read as glutamine, whereas in the genus Euplotes , UGA is translated as cysteine. We have investigated the nature of the tRNACys isoacceptor responsible for decoding UGA in Euplotes cells. Southern hybridization analyses indicated that a single DNA molecule of 630 bp encoding tRNACys exists in the macronucleus of Euplotes octocarinatus . Cloning and sequencing of this fragment revealed that it contains only one copy of a tRNACys gene, which codes for a normal tRNACys with GCA anticodon. This is the first report of the characterization of a tRNA gene in any hypotrichous ciliate. It contains putative signals for initiation and termination of transcription by RNA polymerase III and can be transcribed efficiently in vitro in HeLa cell nuclear extract. Intensive studies on the DNA and tRNA level involving PCR analyses have not disclosed the existence of any tRNA Cys isoacceptor with UCA or ICA anticodons. Translation of the UGA codon by tRNA sub GCA sup Cys necessitates a G:A mispairing in the first anticodon position. We discuss a number of aspects which might contribute to the finding that a near-cognate tRNA isoacceptor efficiently translates the UGA stop codon.