Enhancement of ADP release from the RAD51 presynaptic filament by the SWI5-SFR1 complex

Hop2-Mnd1 and Swi5-Sfr1 stimulate Dmc1 filament assembly using distinct mechanisms

In meiosis, Dmc1 recombinase and the general recombinase Rad51 are responsible for pairing homologous chromosomes and exchanging strands. Fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) Swi5-Sfr1 and Hop2-Mnd1 stimulate Dmc1-driven recombination, but the stimulation mechanism is unclear. Using single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET) and tethered particle motion (TPM) experiments, we showed that Hop2-Mnd1 and Swi5-Sfr1 individually enhance Dmc1 filament assembly on single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and adding both proteins together allows further stimulation. FRET analysis showed that Hop2-Mnd1 enhances the binding rate of Dmc1 while Swi5-Sfr1 specifically reduces the dissociation rate during the nucleation, about 2-fold. In the presence of Hop2-Mnd1, the nucleation time of Dmc1 filaments shortens, and doubling the ss/double-stranded DNA (ss/dsDNA) junctions of DNA substrates reduces the nucleation times in half. Order of addition experiments confirmed that Hop2-Mnd1 binds on DNA to recruit and stimulate Dmc1 nucleation at the ss/dsDNA junction. Our studies directly support the molecular basis of how Hop2-Mnd1 and Swi5-Sfr1 act on different steps during the Dmc1 filament assembly. DNA binding of these accessory proteins and nucleation preferences of recombinases thus dictate how their regulation can take place.

Phosphoregulation of DNA repair via the Rad51 auxiliary factor Swi5-Sfr1

Homologous recombination (HR) is a major pathway for the repair of DNA double-strand breaks, the most severe form of DNA damage. The Rad51 protein is central to HR, but multiple auxiliary factors regulate its activity. The heterodimeric Swi5-Sfr1 complex is one such factor. It was previously shown that two sites within the intrinsically disordered domain of Sfr1 are critical for the interaction with Rad51. Here, we show that phosphorylation of five residues within this domain regulates the interaction of Swi5-Sfr1 with Rad51. Biochemical reconstitutions demonstrated that a phosphomimetic mutant version of Swi5-Sfr1 is defective in both the physical and functional interaction with Rad51. This translated to a defect in DNA repair, with the phosphomimetic mutant yeast strain phenocopying a previously established interaction mutant. Interestingly, a strain in which Sfr1 phosphorylation was blocked also displayed sensitivity to DNA damage. Taken together, we propose that controlled phosphorylation of Sfr1 is important for the role of Swi5-Sfr1 in promoting Rad51-dependent DNA repair.

Nucleotide proofreading functions by nematode RAD51 paralogs facilitate optimal RAD51 filament function

The RAD51 recombinase assembles as helical nucleoprotein filaments on single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and mediates invasion and strand exchange with homologous duplex DNA (dsDNA) during homologous recombination (HR), as well as protection and restart of stalled replication forks. Strand invasion by RAD51-ssDNA complexes depends on ATP binding. However, RAD51 can bind ssDNA in non-productive ADP-bound or nucleotide-free states, and ATP-RAD51-ssDNA complexes hydrolyse ATP over time. Here, we define unappreciated mechanisms by which the RAD51 paralog complex RFS-1/RIP-1 limits the accumulation of RAD-51-ssDNA complexes with unfavorable nucleotide content. We find RAD51 paralogs promote the turnover of ADP-bound RAD-51 from ssDNA, in striking contrast to their ability to stabilize productive ATP-bound RAD-51 nucleoprotein filaments. In addition, RFS-1/RIP-1 inhibits binding of nucleotide-free RAD-51 to ssDNA. We propose that ‘nucleotide proofreading’ activities of RAD51 paralogs co-operate to ensure the enrichment of active, ATP-bound RAD-51 filaments on ssDNA to promote HR.

A RAD51 paralog complex, RFS-1/RIP-1, is shown to control ssDNA binding and dissociation by RAD-51 differentially in the presence and absence of nucleotide cofactors. These nucleotide proofreading activities drive a preferential accumulation of RAD-51-ssDNA complexes with optimal nucleotide content.

How strand exchange protein function benefits from ATP hydrolysis

Members of the RecA family of strand exchange proteins carry out the central reaction in homologous recombination. These proteins are DNA-dependent ATPases, although their ATPase activity is not required for the key functions of homology search and strand exchange. We review the literature on the role of the intrinsic ATPase activity of strand exchange proteins. We also discuss the role of ATP-hydrolysis-dependent motor proteins that serve as strand exchange accessory factors, with an emphasis on the eukaryotic Rad54 family of double strand DNA-specific translocases. The energy from ATP allows recombination events to progress from the strand exchange stage to subsequent stages. ATP hydrolysis also functions to corrects DNA binding errors, including particularly detrimental binding to double strand DNA.

Post-translational modification of factors involved in homologous recombination

DNA is the molecule that stores the chemical instructions necessary for life and its stability is therefore of the utmost importance. Despite this, DNA is damaged by both exogenous and endogenous factors at an alarming frequency. The most severe type of DNA damage is a double-strand break (DSB), in which a scission occurs in both strands of the double helix, effectively dividing a single normal chromosome into two pathological chromosomes. Homologous recombination (HR) is a universal DSB repair mechanism that solves this problem by identifying another region of the genome that shares high sequence similarity with the DSB site and using it as a template for repair. Rad51 possess the enzymatic activity that is essential for this repair but several auxiliary factors are required for Rad51 to fulfil its function. It is becoming increasingly clear that many HR factors are subjected to post-translational modification. Here, we review what is known about how these modifications affect HR. We first focus on cases where there is experimental evidence to support a function for the modification, then discuss speculative cases where a function can be inferred. Finally, we contemplate why such modifications might be necessary.

A novel motif of Rad51 serves as an interaction hub for recombination auxiliary factors

Homologous recombination (HR) is essential for maintaining genome stability. Although Rad51 is the key protein that drives HR, multiple auxiliary factors interact with Rad51 to potentiate its activity. Here, we present an interdisciplinary characterization of the interactions between Rad51 and these factors. Through structural analysis, we identified an evolutionarily conserved acidic patch of Rad51. The neutralization of this patch completely abolished recombinational DNA repair due to defects in the recruitment of Rad51 to DNA damage sites. This acidic patch was found to be important for the interaction with Rad55-Rad57 and essential for the interaction with Rad52. Furthermore, biochemical reconstitutions demonstrated that neutralization of this acidic patch also impaired the interaction with Rad54, indicating that a single motif is important for the interaction with multiple auxiliary factors. We propose that this patch is a fundamental motif that facilitates interactions with auxiliary factors and is therefore essential for recombinational DNA repair.

Microcephaly family protein MCPH1 stabilizes RAD51 filaments

Microcephalin 1 (MCPH1) was identified from genetic mutations in patients with primary autosomal recessive microcephaly. In response to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), MCPH1 forms damage-induced foci and recruits BRCA2-RAD51 complex, a key component of the DSB repair machinery for homologous recombination (HR), to damage sites. Accordingly, the efficiency of HR is significantly attenuated upon depletion of MCPH1. The biochemical characteristics of MCPH1 and its functional interaction with the HR machinery had remained unclear due to lack of highly purified MCPH1 recombinant protein for functional study. Here, we established a mammalian expression system to express and purify MCPH1 protein. We show that MCPH1 is a bona fide DNA-binding protein and provide direct biochemical analysis of this MCPH family protein. Furthermore, we reveal that MCPH1 directly interacts with RAD51 at multiple contact points, providing evidence for how MCPH1 physically engages with the HR machinery. Importantly, we demonstrate that MCPH1 enhances the stability of RAD51 on single-strand DNA, a prerequisite step for RAD51-mediated recombination. Single-molecule tethered particle motion analysis showed a ∼2-fold increase in the lifetime of RAD51-ssDNA filaments in the presence of MCPH1. Thus, our study demonstrates direct crosstalk between microcephaly protein MCPH1 and the recombination component RAD51 for DSB repair.

Real-time tracking reveals catalytic roles for the two DNA binding sites of Rad51

During homologous recombination, Rad51 forms a nucleoprotein filament on single-stranded DNA to promote DNA strand exchange. This filament binds to double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), searches for homology, and promotes transfer of the complementary strand, producing a new heteroduplex. Strand exchange proceeds via two distinct three-strand intermediates, C1 and C2. C1 contains the intact donor dsDNA whereas C2 contains newly formed heteroduplex DNA. Here, we show that the conserved DNA binding motifs, loop 1 (L1) and loop 2 (L2) in site I of Rad51, play distinct roles in this process. L1 is involved in formation of the C1 complex whereas L2 mediates the C1–C2 transition, producing the heteroduplex. Another DNA binding motif, site II, serves as the DNA entry position for initial Rad51 filament formation, as well as for donor dsDNA incorporation. Our study provides a comprehensive molecular model for the catalytic process of strand exchange mediated by eukaryotic RecA-family recombinases.

Rad51 drives DNA strand exchange, the central reaction in recombinational DNA repair. Two sites of Rad51 are responsible for DNA binding, but the function of these sites has proven elusive. Here, the authors employ real-time assays to reveal catalytic roles for the two DNA binding sites of Rad51.

Cooperative interactions facilitate stimulation of Rad51 by the Swi5-Sfr1 auxiliary factor complex

Although Rad51 is the key protein in homologous recombination (HR), a major DNA double-strand break repair pathway, several auxiliary factors interact with Rad51 to promote productive HR. We present an interdisciplinary characterization of the interaction between Rad51 and Swi5-Sfr1, a conserved auxiliary factor. Two distinct sites within the intrinsically disordered N-terminus of Sfr1 (Sfr1N) were found to cooperatively bind Rad51. Deletion of this domain impaired Rad51 stimulation in vitro and rendered cells sensitive to DNA damage. By contrast, amino acid-substitution mutants, which had comparable biochemical defects, could promote DNA repair, suggesting that Sfr1N has another role in addition to Rad51 binding. Unexpectedly, the DNA repair observed in these mutants was dependent on Rad55-Rad57, another auxiliary factor complex hitherto thought to function independently of Swi5-Sfr1. When combined with the finding that they form a higher-order complex, our results imply that Swi5-Sfr1 and Rad55-Rad57 can collaboratively stimulate Rad51 in Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

Role of Rad51 and DNA repair in cancer: A molecular perspective

The maintenance of genome integrity is essential for any organism survival and for the inheritance of traits to offspring. To the purpose, cells have developed a complex DNA repair system to defend the genetic information against both endogenous and exogenous sources of damage. Accordingly, multiple repair pathways can be aroused from the diverse forms of DNA lesions, which can be effective per se or via crosstalk with others to complete the whole DNA repair process. Deficiencies in DNA healing resulting in faulty repair and/or prolonged DNA damage can lead to genes mutations, chromosome rearrangements, genomic instability, and finally carcinogenesis and/or cancer progression. Although it might seem paradoxical, at the same time such defects in DNA repair pathways may have therapeutic implications for potential clinical practice. Here we provide an overview of the main DNA repair pathways, with special focus on the role played by homologous repair and the RAD51 recombinase protein in the cellular DNA damage response. We next discuss the recombinase structure and function per se and in combination with all its principal mediators and regulators. Finally, we conclude with an analysis of the manifold roles that RAD51 plays in carcinogenesis, cancer progression and anticancer drug resistance, and conclude this work with a survey of the most promising therapeutic strategies aimed at targeting RAD51 in experimental oncology.

Weaving DNA strands: structural insight on ATP hydrolysis in RecA-induced homologous recombination

Homologous recombination is a fundamental process in all living organisms that allows the faithful repair of DNA double strand breaks, through the exchange of DNA strands between homologous regions of the genome. Results of three decades of investigation and recent fruitful observations have unveiled key elements of the reaction mechanism, which proceeds along nucleofilaments of recombinase proteins of the RecA family. Yet, one essential aspect of homologous recombination has largely been overlooked when deciphering the mechanism: while ATP is hydrolyzed in large quantity during the process, how exactly hydrolysis influences the DNA strand exchange reaction at the structural level remains to be elucidated. In this study, we build on a previous geometrical approach that studied the RecA filament variability without bound DNA to examine the putative implication of ATP hydrolysis on the structure, position, and interactions of up to three DNA strands within the RecA nucleofilament. Simulation results on modeled intermediates in the ATP cycle bring important clues about how local distortions in the DNA strand geometries resulting from ATP hydrolysis can aid sequence recognition by promoting local melting of already formed DNA heteroduplex and transient reverse strand exchange in a weaving type of mechanism.

A mutant form of Dmc1 that bypasses the requirement for accessory protein Mei5-Sae3 reveals independent activities of Mei5-Sae3 and Rad51 in Dmc1 filament stability

During meiosis, homologous recombination repairs programmed DNA double-stranded breaks. Meiotic recombination physically links the homologous chromosomes (“homologs”), creating the tension between them that is required for their segregation. The central recombinase in this process is Dmc1. Dmc1’s activity is regulated by its accessory factors including the heterodimeric protein Mei5-Sae3 and Rad51. We use a gain-of-function dmc1 mutant, dmc1-E157D, that bypasses Mei5-Sae3 to gain insight into the role of this accessory factor and its relationship to mitotic recombinase Rad51, which also functions as a Dmc1 accessory protein during meiosis. We find that Mei5-Sae3 has a role in filament formation and stability, but not in the bias of recombination partner choice that favors homolog over sister chromatids. Analysis of meiotic recombination intermediates suggests that Mei5-Sae3 and Rad51 function independently in promoting filament stability. In spite of its ability to load onto single-stranded DNA and carry out recombination in the absence of Mei5-Sae3, recombination promoted by the Dmc1 mutant is abnormal in that it forms foci in the absence of DNA breaks, displays unusually high levels of multi-chromatid and intersister joint molecule intermediates, as well as high levels of ectopic recombination products. We use super-resolution microscopy to show that the mutant protein forms longer foci than those formed by wild-type Dmc1. Our data support a model in which longer filaments are more prone to engage in aberrant recombination events, suggesting that filament lengths are normally limited by a regulatory mechanism that functions to prevent recombination-mediated genome rearrangements.

During meiosis, two rounds of division follow a single round of DNA replication to create the gametes for biparental reproduction. The first round of division requires that the homologous chromosomes become physically linked to one another to create the tension that is necessary for their segregation. This linkage is achieved through DNA recombination between the two homologous chromosomes, followed by resolution of the recombination intermediate into a crossover. Central to this process is the meiosis-specific recombinase Dmc1, and its accessory factors, which provide important regulatory functions to ensure that recombination is accurate, efficient, and occurs predominantly between homologous chromosomes, and not sister chromatids. To gain insight into the regulation of Dmc1 by its accessory factors, we mutated Dmc1 such that it was no longer dependent on its accessory factor Mei5-Sae3. Our analysis reveals that Dmc1 accessory factors Mei5-Sae3 and Rad51 have independent roles in stabilizing Dmc1 filaments. Furthermore, we find that although Rad51 is required for promoting recombination between homologous chromosomes, Mei5-Sae3 is not. Lastly, we show that our Dmc1 mutant forms abnormally long filaments, and high levels of aberrant recombination intermediates and products. These findings suggest that filaments are actively maintained at short lengths to prevent deleterious genome rearrangements.

Swi5-Sfr1 stimulates Rad51 recombinase filament assembly by modulating Rad51 dissociation

Eukaryotic Rad51 protein is essential for homologous-recombination repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Rad51 recombinases first assemble onto single-stranded DNA to form a nucleoprotein filament, required for function in homology pairing and strand exchange. This filament assembly is the first regulation step in homologous recombination. Rad51 nucleation is kinetically slow, and several accessory factors have been identified to regulate this step. Swi5-Sfr1 (S5S1) stimulates Rad51-mediated homologous recombination by stabilizing Rad51 nucleoprotein filaments, but the mechanism of stabilization is unclear. We used single-molecule tethered particle motion experiments to show that mouse S5S1 (mS5S1) efficiently stimulates mouse RAD51 (mRAD51) nucleus formation and inhibits mRAD51 dissociation from filaments. We also used single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer experiments to show that mS5S1 promotes stable nucleus formation by specifically preventing mRAD51 dissociation. This leads to a reduction of nucleation size from three mRAD51 to two mRAD51 molecules in the presence of mS5S1. Compared with mRAD51, fission yeast Rad51 (SpRad51) exhibits fast nucleation but quickly dissociates from the filament. SpS5S1 specifically reduces SpRad51 disassembly to maintain a stable filament. These results clearly demonstrate the conserved function of S5S1 by primarily stabilizing Rad51 on DNA, allowing both the formation of the stable nucleus and the maintenance of filament length.

Homologous recombination and the repair of DNA double-strand breaks

Homologous recombination enables the cell to access and copy intact DNA sequence information in trans, particularly to repair DNA damage affecting both strands of the double helix. Here, we discuss the DNA transactions and enzymatic activities required for this elegantly orchestrated process in the context of the repair of DNA double-strand breaks in somatic cells. This includes homology search, DNA strand invasion, repair DNA synthesis, and restoration of intact chromosomes. Aspects of DNA topology affecting individual steps are highlighted. Overall, recombination is a dynamic pathway with multiple metastable and reversible intermediates designed to achieve DNA repair with high fidelity.

Two three-strand intermediates are processed during Rad51-driven DNA strand exchange

During homologous recombination, Rad51 forms a nucleoprotein filament with single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) that undergoes strand exchange with homologous double-stranded DNA (dsDNA). Here, we use real-time analysis to show that strand exchange by fission yeast Rad51 proceeds via two distinct three-strand intermediates, C1 and C2. Both intermediates contain Rad51, but whereas the donor duplex remains intact in C1, the ssDNA strand is intertwined with the complementary strand of the donor duplex in C2. Swi5-Sfr1, an evolutionarily conserved recombination activator, facilitates the C1-C2 transition and subsequent ssDNA release from C2 to complete strand exchange in an ATP-hydrolysis-dependent manner. In contrast, Ca²⁺, which activates the Rad51 filament by curbing ATP hydrolysis, facilitates the C1-C2 transition but does not promote strand exchange. These results reveal that Swi5-Sfr1 and Ca²⁺ have different activation modes in the late synaptic phase, despite their common function in stabilizing the presynaptic filament.

Stable Nuclei of Nucleoprotein Filament and High ssDNA Binding Affinity Contribute to Enhanced RecA E38K Recombinase Activity

RecA plays central roles in the homologous recombination to repair double-stranded DNA break damage in E. coli. A previously identified recA strain surviving high doses of UV radiation includes a dominant RecA E38K mutation. Using single-molecule experiments, we showed that the RecA E38K variant protein assembles nucleoprotein filaments more rapidly than the wild-type RecA. We also used a single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET) experiment to compare the nucleation cluster dynamics of wild-type RecA and RecA E38K mutants on various short ssDNA substrates. At shorter ssDNA, nucleation clusters of RecA E38K form dynamically, while only few were seen in wild-type RecA. RecA E38K also forms stable nuclei by specifically lowering the dissociation rate constant, k_d. These observations provide evidence that greater nuclei stability and higher ssDNA binding affinity contribute to the observed enhanced recombination activity of the RecA E38K mutant. Given that assembly of RecA nucleoprotein filaments is the first committed step in recombinational repair processes, enhancement at this step gives rise to a more efficient recombinase.

RecA-SSB Interaction Modulates RecA Nucleoprotein Filament Formation on SSB-Wrapped DNA

E. coli RecA recombinase catalyzes the homology pairing and strand exchange reactions in homologous recombinational repair. RecA must compete with single-stranded DNA binding proteins (SSB) for single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) substrates to form RecA nucleoprotein filaments, as the first step of this repair process. It has been suggested that RecA filaments assemble mainly by binding and extending onto the free ssDNA region not covered by SSB, or are assisted by mediators. Using the tethered particle motion (TPM) technique, we monitored individual RecA filament assembly on SSB-wrapped ssDNA in real-time. Nucleation times of the RecA E38K nucleoprotein filament assembly showed no apparent dependence among DNA substrates with various ssDNA gap lengths (from 60 to 100 nucleotides) wrapped by one SSB in the (SSB)₆₅ binding mode. Our data have shown an unexpected RecA filament assembly mechanism in which a RecA-SSB-ssDNA interaction exists. Four additional pieces of evidence support our claim: the nucleation times of the RecA assembly varied (1) when DNA substrates contained different numbers of bound SSB tetramers; (2) when the SSB wrapping mode conversion is induced; (3) when SSB C-terminus truncation mutants are used; and (4) when an excess of C-terminal peptide of SSB is present. Thus, a RecA-SSB interaction should be included in discussing RecA regulatory mechanism.

The differentiated and conserved roles of Swi5-Sfr1 in homologous recombination

Homologous recombination (HR) is the process whereby two DNA molecules that share high sequence similarity are able to recombine to generate hybrid DNA molecules. Throughout evolution, the ability of HR to identify highly similar DNA sequences has been adopted for numerous biological phenomena including DNA repair, meiosis, telomere maintenance, ribosomal DNA amplification and immunological diversity. Although Rad51 and Dmc1 are the key proteins that promote HR in mitotic and meiotic cells, respectively, accessory proteins that allow Rad51 and Dmc1 to effectively fulfil their functions have been identified in all examined model systems. In this Review, we discuss the roles of the highly conserved Swi5‐Sfr1 accessory complex in yeast, mice and humans, and explore similarities and differences between these species.

The β-isoform of BCCIP promotes ADP release from the RAD51 presynaptic filament and enhances homologous DNA pairing

Homologous recombination (HR) is a template-driven repair pathway that mends DNA double-stranded breaks (DSBs), and thus helps to maintain genome stability. The RAD51 recombinase facilitates DNA joint formation during HR, but to accomplish this task, RAD51 must be loaded onto the single-stranded DNA. DSS1, a candidate gene for split hand/split foot syndrome, provides the ability to recognize RPA-coated ssDNA to the tumor suppressor BRCA2, which is complexed with RAD51. Together BRCA2-DSS1 displace RPA and load RAD51 onto the ssDNA. In addition, the BRCA2 interacting protein BCCIP normally colocalizes with chromatin bound BRCA2, and upon DSB induction, RAD51 colocalizes with BRCA2-BCCIP foci. Down-regulation of BCCIP reduces DSB repair and disrupts BRCA2 and RAD51 foci formation. While BCCIP is known to interact with BRCA2, the relationship between BCCIP and RAD51 is not known. In this study, we investigated the biochemical role of the β-isoform of BCCIP in relation to the RAD51 recombinase. We demonstrate that BCCIPβ binds DNA and physically and functionally interacts with RAD51 to stimulate its homologous DNA pairing activity. Notably, this stimulatory effect is not the result of RAD51 nucleoprotein filament stabilization; rather, we demonstrate that BCCIPβ induces a conformational change within the RAD51 filament that promotes release of ADP to help maintain an active presynaptic filament. Our findings reveal a functional role for BCCIPβ as a RAD51 accessory factor in HR.

Role of the RAD51-SWI5-SFR1 Ensemble in homologous recombination

During DNA double-strand break and replication fork repair by homologous recombination, the RAD51 recombinase catalyzes the DNA strand exchange reaction via a helical polymer assembled on single-stranded DNA, termed the presynaptic filament. Our published work has demonstrated a dual function of the SWI5-SFR1 complex in RAD51-mediated DNA strand exchange, namely, by stabilizing the presynaptic filament and maintaining the catalytically active ATP-bound state of the filament via enhancement of ADP release. In this study, we have strived to determine the basis for physical and functional interactions between Mus musculus SWI5-SFR1 and RAD51. We found that SWI5-SFR1 preferentially associates with the oligomeric form of RAD51. Specifically, a C-terminal domain within SWI5 contributes to RAD51 interaction. With specific RAD51 interaction defective mutants of SWI5-SFR1 that we have isolated, we show that the physical interaction is indispensable for the stimulation of the recombinase activity of RAD51. Our results thus help establish the functional relevance of the trimeric RAD51-SWI5-SFR1 complex and provide insights into the mechanistic underpinnings of homology-directed DNA repair in mammalian cells.

An Overview of the Molecular Mechanisms of Recombinational DNA Repair

Recombinational DNA repair is a universal aspect of DNA metabolism and is essential for genomic integrity. It is a template-directed process that uses a second chromosomal copy (sister, daughter, or homolog) to ensure proper repair of broken chromosomes. The key steps of recombination are conserved from phage through human, and an overview of those steps is provided in this review. The first step is resection by helicases and nucleases to produce single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) that defines the homologous locus. The ssDNA is a scaffold for assembly of the RecA/RAD51 filament, which promotes the homology search. On finding homology, the nucleoprotein filament catalyzes exchange of DNA strands to form a joint molecule. Recombination is controlled by regulating the fate of both RecA/RAD51 filaments and DNA pairing intermediates. Finally, intermediates that mature into Holliday structures are disjoined by either nucleolytic resolution or topological dissolution.

Functional Relationship of ATP Hydrolysis, Presynaptic Filament Stability, and Homologous DNA Pairing Activity of the Human Meiotic Recombinase DMC1

DMC1 and RAD51 are conserved recombinases that catalyze homologous recombination. DMC1 and RAD51 share similar properties in DNA binding, DNA-stimulated ATP hydrolysis, and catalysis of homologous DNA strand exchange. A large body of evidence indicates that attenuation of ATP hydrolysis leads to stabilization of the RAD51-ssDNA presynaptic filament and enhancement of DNA strand exchange. However, the functional relationship of ATPase activity, presynaptic filament stability, and DMC1-mediated homologous DNA strand exchange has remained largely unexplored. To address this important question, we have constructed several mutant variants of human DMC1 and characterized them biochemically to gain mechanistic insights. Two mutations, K132R and D223N, that change key residues in the Walker A and B nucleotide-binding motifs ablate ATP binding and render DMC1 inactive. On the other hand, the nucleotide-binding cap D317K mutant binds ATP normally but shows significantly attenuated ATPase activity and, accordingly, forms a highly stable presynaptic filament. Surprisingly, unlike RAD51, presynaptic filament stabilization achieved via ATP hydrolysis attenuation does not lead to any enhancement of DMC1-catalyzed homologous DNA pairing and strand exchange. This conclusion is further supported by examining wild-type DMC1 with non-hydrolyzable ATP analogues. Thus, our results reveal an important mechanistic difference between RAD51 and DMC1.

A fine-scale dissection of the DNA double-strand break repair machinery and its implications for breast cancer therapy

DNA-damage response machinery is crucial to maintain the genomic integrity of cells, by enabling effective repair of even highly lethal lesions such as DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). Defects in specific genes acquired through mutations, copy-number alterations or epigenetic changes can alter the balance of these pathways, triggering cancerous potential in cells. Selective killing of cancer cells by sensitizing them to further DNA damage, especially by induction of DSBs, therefore requires careful modulation of DSB-repair pathways. Here, we review the latest knowledge on the two DSB-repair pathways, homologous recombination and non-homologous end joining in human, describing in detail the functions of their components and the key mechanisms contributing to the repair. Such an in-depth characterization of these pathways enables a more mechanistic understanding of how cells respond to therapies, and suggests molecules and processes that can be explored as potential therapeutic targets. One such avenue that has shown immense promise is via the exploitation of synthetic lethal relationships, for which the BRCA1-PARP1 relationship is particularly notable. Here, we describe how this relationship functions and the manner in which cancer cells acquire therapy resistance by restoring their DSB repair potential.