Use of cimetidine, omeprazole, and ranitidine in pregnant women and pregnancy outcomes

Cimetidine for recurrent respiratory papillomatosis in pregnancy as an alternative adjuvant treatment

BACKGROUND

We report the first case of cimetidine as an alternative adjuvant therapy in a pregnant woman with recurrent respiratory papillomatosis (RRP). A 40 year old woman at 19 week gestation presented with progressive hoarseness and shortness of breath for 1 month. Flexible nasopharyngolaryngoscopy revealed multiple papillomatous lesions over both vocal cords and subglottic area obstructing 60% of her airway. She had previously been diagnosed with juvenile onset RRP at the age of 5 and underwent endoscopic clearance regularly every 6 months.

METHOD

The patient was started on a trial of oral cimetidine at a dose of 30 mg/kg and responded well, eventually requiring endoscopic excision only after 2 years. Subsequently, she underwent in vitro fertilisation treatment and stopped taking her cimetidine. After undergoing endoscopic clearance of her papillomata under general anaesthesia, she restarted on cimetidine during her 2nd and 3rd trimester.

RESULTS

Ensuing follow-up demonstrated stable minimal papillomata lesions on her right inferior surface of her vocal cord with no recurrence on her left vocal cord and subglottic area.

CONCLUSION

Cimetidine is generally safe and not known to be associated with any major teratogenic risks during pregnancy. RRP is postulated to worsen in pregnant women due to the increase in oestrogen levels during pregnancy. Hence, adjuvant therapy was imperative for our patient to reduce recurrent papillomata formation during her pregnancy. Larger scale studies are warranted to assess the use of long-term high-dose cimetidine in terms of efficacy and safety in pregnancy.

Use of proton pump inhibitors during pregnancy: A systematic review and meta-analysis of congenital malformations

Use of proton pump inhibitors (PPI) are common among pregnant women to relieve gastrointestinal symptoms. The number of exposed pregnancies is therefore considerable, and a recent meta-analysis (MA) from 2020 raised concern about their teratogenicity. The aim of the study was to provide a MA of the risk of major congenital malformations (MCM) after PPI exposure during the first trimester of pregnancy. A systematic review and random-effects model approach were performed using a collaborative WEB-based meta-analysis platform (metaPreg.org) with a registered protocol (osf.io/u4gva). The primary outcome was the incidence of overall MCM. The secondary outcomes of interest were specific MCM reported by at least three studies. All comparative studies assessing these outcomes in PPI exposed pregnancies were searched from inception to April 2022. From the 211 initially identified studies, 11 were included in the MA. The pooled odds ratio (OR) for the primary outcome showed no significant results based on 5 618 exposed pregnancies (OR 1.10, 95% CI [0.95;1.26]; I²=0%). Similarly, no result was significant for the secondary outcomes. The total exposed sample size ranged from 3 161-5 085; OR ranged between 0.60 and 1.92; heterogeneity was between 0% and 23%. Based on the results of the present MA, first trimester PPI exposure was not associated with a significantly increased risk of overall or specific MCM. However, this MA included only observational studies which are prone to bias and there were insufficient data to evaluate PPI at a substance level. Future studies are needed to address this concern.

Population-based cohort study: proton pump inhibitor use during pregnancy in Sweden and the risk of maternal and neonatal adverse events

BACKGROUND

Approximately half of all women suffer from heartburn at some stage during pregnancy. The most effective treatment is proton pump inhibitors, but the safety of use during pregnancy cannot be guaranteed. This study aimed to elucidate the effect of proton pump inhibitors on the risk of pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes mellitus, preterm birth, an Apgar score at 5 min below 7, and a child being small or large for its gestational age.

METHODS

This Swedish population-based study included 1,089,514 live singleton deliveries between July 2006 and December 2016 in Sweden. Multiple logistic regression was used to model the outcomes as a function of the covariates. Results were presented as odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals.

RESULTS

In 1.4% of all pregnancies, the mother used proton pump inhibitors in the period from 3 months before the last menstrual period up to delivery. The use of proton pump inhibitors was associated with higher odds of pre-eclampsia (odds ratio = 1.19, 1.10-1.29), gestational diabetes mellitus (odds ratio = 1.29, 1.16-1.43), preterm birth (odds ratio = 1.23, 1.14-1.32), and small for gestational age (odds ratio = 1.27, 1.16-1.40) and lower odds of large for gestational age (odds ratio = 0.84, 0.77-0.91). No significant association was found with a low Apgar score 5 min after birth.

CONCLUSIONS

Proton pump inhibitor use was associated with a higher risk of pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, preterm birth, and being born small for gestational age.

The identification and validity of congenital malformation diagnoses in UK electronic health records: A systematic review

PURPOSE

To describe the methods used to identify and validate congenital malformation diagnoses recorded in UK electronic health records, and the results of validation studies.

METHODS

Medline and Embase were searched for publications between 1987 and 2019 that involved identifying congenital malformations from UK electronic health records using diagnostic codes. The methods and code-lists used to identify congenital malformations, and the methods and results of validations, were examined.

RESULTS

We retrieved 54 eligible studies; 36 identified congenital malformations from primary care data and 18 from secondary care data alone or in combination with birth and/or death records. Identification in secondary care data relied on codes from the 'Q' chapter for congenital malformations in ICD-10. In contrast, studies using primary care data frequently used additional codes outside of the 'P' chapter for congenital malformation diagnoses in Read, although the exact codes used were not always clear. Eight studies validated diagnoses identified in primary care data. The positive predictive value was highest (80%-100%) for congenital malformations overall, major malformations, and heart defects although the validity of the reference standard used was often uncertain. It was lowest for neural tube defects (71%) and developmental hip dysplasia (56%).

CONCLUSIONS

Studies identifying congenital malformations from primary care data provided limited details about the methods used. The few validation studies were limited to diagnoses recorded in primary care. Further assessments of all measures of validity in both data sources and of other malformation subgroups are needed, using robust reference standards and adhering to reporting guidelines.

Drug related adverse pregnancy outcomes at a tertiary care hospital from the foothills of Himalayas: A Prospective observational study

Context and Aim:

Safety of drug usage during pregnancy is of utmost importance. Unrestricted usage of drugs may lead to undesirable and unpredictable pregnancy outcomes. This study was designed to detect drug-related adverse pregnancy outcomes, perform prescription audit and develop a pregnancy drug registry.

Methods and Materials:

A prospective observational study was conducted at a tertiary care hospital in northern India. Pregnant females attending antenatal clinic, irrespective of their duration of pregnancy were included in the study over a period of 1 year. The participants were followed up monthly during their pregnancy till the pregnancy outcome. Adverse pregnancy outcomes were evaluated and causality assessment was done using the WHO-UMC scale.

Statistical Analysis:

Descriptive and inferential statistical tools were used for appropriate variables. Regression model was used to establish relationship between factors proposed to be responsible for adverse pregnancy outcomes. Presence of adverse pregnancy outcome was used as an independent variable. Microsoft Excel and Strata (version 12) were used for statistical analysis.

Results:

A total 326 pregnant women were screened out of which 305 were included in the final analysis. Mean age of participants was 27.82 (±4.51) years. Pre-existing comorbidities were present in 4.26% of participants. Average number of drugs per participant was 6.32 (±1.94). Most drugs prescribed to participants were from FDA category B (49.23%) and category A (33.60%). Mean ADR reported per patient was 1.16 (±1.18) with involvement of musculoskeletal (56.42%) and gastrointestinal (7.16%) being most frequent. Adverse pregnancy outcomes were reported in 25 participants among which IUGR (24%) followed by IUD (20%) and ectopic pregnancy (16%) were most frequently observed. Multivariate logistic regression showed number of comorbidities (P = 0.037) and number of drugs consumed during pregnancy (P = 0.02) to be statistically significantly associated with occurrence of adverse pregnancy outcome.

Conclusions:

Pregnancy registries have been instrumental in detection of signals for further research in drug-related adverse outcomes. Inappropriate usage of drugs has been shown to be associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Our study warrants need for further well-designed studies on adverse pregnancy outcomes in larger patient populations.

Systematic review with meta-analysis: the risks of proton pump inhibitors during pregnancy

BACKGROUND

There have been safety concerns considering long-term proton pump inhibitor (PPI) use, also during pregnancy.

AIMS

To assess the risk of adverse neonatal outcomes associated with maternal intake of PPIs by means of systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

The systematic search included PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Database and Embase (inception until June 2019). All studies reporting ≥1 adverse pregnancy outcome comparing PPI users to non-users. Histamine-2 receptor antagonists (H2RA) were also compared to both non-users and PPI users. Outcomes included congenital malformations, abortion, stillbirth, neonatal death, preterm birth, small for gestational age and low birth weight. Pooled odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were obtained by random-effects modelling. PROSPERO study-protocol: CRD42018103320.

RESULTS

In total, 26 observational studies (20 cohort, 6 case-control studies) were identified, of which 19 assessed PPIs and 12 H2RA. PPI use was associated with an increased risk of congenital malformations (OR 1.28, 95% CI 1.09-1.52), especially in case-control studies (OR 2.04, 1.46-2.86). No associations were found between H2RA and congenital malformations. No significant associations were found between PPI use and abortions, stillbirth, neonatal death, preterm birth and low-birth weight, although H2RA use may be associated with an increased risk of preterm birth (OR 1.25, 95% CI 1.02-1.56). Although statistical heterogeneity and the risk of bias were overall low, clinical heterogeneity, information and selection bias may be present in the individual studies.

CONCLUSIONS

This meta-analysis suggests an association between maternal PPI use and congenital malformations in humans, yet power was insufficient to assess specific malformations and drugs.

Review article: the management of heartburn during pregnancy and lactation

BACKGROUND

Gestational reflux is common, affecting up to 80% of pregnant women. Most symptoms will abate during lactation. During both of these periods, interventions used to relieve symptoms focus on a "step-up" methodology with progressive intensification of treatment. This begins with lifestyle modifications.

AIM

To provide guidance in the treatment of reflux in pregnancy and lactation, as well as briefly summarising the pathogenesis, clinical presentation and diagnostic workup.

METHODS

A comprehensive search, using online databases PubMed and MEDLINE, along with relevant manuscripts published in English between 1966 and 2019 was used. All abstracts were screened, potentially relevant articles were researched, and bibliographies were reviewed.

RESULTS

Only a small percentage of relevant drugs are contraindicated for use in pregnancy or while breastfeeding. However, not all drug agents have been extensively evaluated in pregnant women or during the breastfeeding period. Antacids, alginates, and sucralfate are the first-line therapeutic agents. If symptoms persist, any of the H₂ RAs can be used except for nizatidine (due to foetal teratogenicity or harm in animal studies). PPIs are reserved for women with intractable symptoms or complicated GERD; all are FDA category B drugs, except for omeprazole, which is a category C drug.

CONCLUSIONS

The management of heartburn during pregnancy and lactation begins with lifestyle modifications. In situations where disease severity increases, medical providers must discuss risks and benefits of these medicines with the patient in detail.

A Review of Pregnancy-Associated Breast Cancer: Diagnosis, Local and Systemic Treatment, and Prognosis

The incidence of pregnancy-associated breast cancer (PABC) increases as more women choose to delay childbearing and the population-based incidence of breast cancer rises. Reliably and safely staging PABC is necessary to choose between starting with local or systemic therapy. With regard to local therapy, both lumpectomy and mastectomy can be considered depending on gestational age and the stage at diagnosis. By mirroring nonpregnant treatment regimens as much as possible, chemotherapy may improve long-term oncologic outcomes while allowing for surgical downstaging during pregnancy. Delaying treatment due to misconceptions regarding risk of local and systemic therapy most certainly worsens oncologic outcomes, and most neonatal morbidity is related to gestational age at delivery and not in utero exposures. Pregnancy itself was once considered an independent risk factor for worse outcome, but the prognosis of these patients is not significantly different than nonpregnant counterparts of a similar age.

The Management of Nausea and Vomiting of Pregnancy

OBJECTIVES

To review the evidence-based management of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy and hyperemesis gravidarum.

EVIDENCE

MEDLINE and Cochrane database searches were performed using the medical subject headings of treatment, nausea, vomiting, pregnancy, and hyperemesis gravidarum. The quality of evidence reported in these guidelines has been described using the Evaluation of Evidence criteria outlined in the Report of the Canadian Task Force on Preventative Health Care.

BENEFITS

Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy has a profound effect on women's health and quality of life during pregnancy as well as a financial impact on the health care system, and its early recognition and management is recommended. COST: Costs, including hospitalizations, additional office visits, and time lost from work, may be reduced if nausea and vomiting in pregnancy is treated early.

RECOMMENDATIONS

ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 189: Nausea And Vomiting Of Pregnancy

Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy is a common condition that affects the health of a pregnant woman and her fetus. It can diminish a woman's quality of life and also significantly contributes to health care costs and time lost from work (1, 2). Because morning sickness is common in early pregnancy, the presence of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy may be minimized by obstetricians, other obstetric care providers, and pregnant women and, thus, undertreated (1). Furthermore, some women do not seek treatment because of concerns about the safety of medications (3). Once nausea and vomiting of pregnancy progresses, it can become more difficult to control symptoms. Treatment in the early stages may prevent more serious complications, including hospitalization (4). Safe and effective treatments are available for more severe cases, and mild cases of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy may be resolved with lifestyle and dietary changes. The woman's perception of the severity of her symptoms plays a critical role in the decision of whether, when, and how to treat nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy should be distinguished from nausea and vomiting related to other causes. The purpose of this document is to review the best available evidence about the diagnosis and management of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy.

Practice Bulletin No. 153: Nausea and Vomiting of Pregnancy

Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy is a common condition that affects the health of the pregnant woman and her fetus. It can diminish the woman's quality of life and also significantly contributes to health care costs and time lost from work (). Because "morning sickness" is common in early pregnancy, the presence of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy may be minimized by obstetricians, other obstetric providers, and pregnant women and, thus, undertreated (). Furthermore, some women do not seek treatment because of concerns about safety of medications (). Once nausea and vomiting of pregnancy progresses, it can become more difficult to control symptoms; treatment in the early stages may prevent more serious complications, including hospitalization (). Mild cases of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy may be resolved with lifestyle and dietary changes, and safe and effective treatments are available for more severe cases. The woman's perception of the severity of her symptoms plays a critical role in the decision of whether, when, and how to treat nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. In addition, nausea and vomiting of pregnancy should be distinguished from nausea and vomiting related to other causes. The purpose of this document is to review the best available evidence about the diagnosis and management of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy.

Antihistamines and birth defects: a systematic review of the literature

INTRODUCTION

Approximately 10 - 15% of women reportedly take an antihistamine during pregnancy for the relief of nausea and vomiting, allergy and asthma symptoms, or indigestion. Antihistamines include histamine H1-receptor and H2-receptor antagonists.

AREAS COVERED

This is a systematic evaluation of the peer-reviewed epidemiologic literature published through February 2014 on the association between prenatal exposure to antihistamines and birth defects. Papers addressing histamine H1- or H2-receptor antagonists are included. Papers addressing pyridoxine plus doxylamine (Bendectin in the United States, Debendox in the United Kingdom, Diclectin in Canada, Lenotan and Merbental in other countries) prior to the year 2001 were excluded post hoc because of several previously published meta-analyses and commentaries on this medication.

EXPERT OPINION

The literature on the safety of antihistamine use during pregnancy with respect to birth defects is generally reassuring though the positive findings from a few large studies warrant corroboration in other populations. The findings in the literature are considered in light of three critical methodological issues: i) selection of appropriate study population; ii) ascertainment of antihistamine exposures; and iii) ascertainment of birth defect outcomes. Selected antihistamines have been very well studied (e.g., loratadine); others, especially H2-receptor antagonists, require additional study before an assessment of safety with respect to birth defect risk could be made.

First-trimester antihistamine exposure and risk of spontaneous abortion or preterm birth

PURPOSE

We tested whether antihistamine exposure during early pregnancy is associated with spontaneous abortion (SAB) or preterm birth (PTB).

METHODS

Women were enrolled in Right from the Start (2004-2010), a prospective pregnancy cohort. Data about first-trimester antihistamine use were obtained from screening and first-trimester interviews. Self-reported outcomes included SAB and PTB and were verified by medical records. Cox proportional hazards models were used to test for an association between antihistamine use and each outcome, both performed adjusting for confounders.

RESULTS

Among the 2685 pregnancies analyzed, 14% (n = 377) reported use of antihistamines. Among antihistamine users, 12% (n = 44) experienced SABs, and 6% (n = 21) had PTBs. Antihistamine exposure was not associated with SAB (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] = 0.88, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.64, 1.21) or PTB, which was modified by maternal race (aHR = 1.03, 95%CI 0.61, 1.72 among White women and aHR = 0.43, 95%CI 0.14, 1.34 among Black women).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the biologic plausibility that antihistamine use may influence pregnancy outcomes, we did not detect evidence of an association with SAB or PTB. These data demonstrate the utility of large prospective cohorts for evaluating drug safety in pregnancy when concerns are raised from animal models.

The Clinical Practice Research Datalink for drug safety in pregnancy research: an overview

Medicine use during pregnancy is common; however the safety of medicine use during pregnancy is largely unknown when a medicine comes to market. Electronic healthcare databases, including the Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD), are increasingly being used for post-marketing surveillance in this field. The CPRD contains anonymised, longitudinal medical records routinely collected in primary care. Using CPRD data it is possible to identify medical records indicative of pregnancy, including pregnancy losses. Data on prescriptions issued can be used to determine maternal exposure and for about 80% of pregnancies it is possible to link the mother's medical record to the medical record of the child. Data in the medical records of the mother and child can then be used to identify adverse pregnancy outcomes, including congenital malformations. This paper describes some of the complexities involved in using CPRD data for pregnancy related research and discusses some of its strengths and limitations.

Are proton pump inhibitors safe during pregnancy and lactation? Evidence to date

Symptoms of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD or GERD) are estimated to occur in 30-50% of pregnancies, with the incidence approaching 80% in some populations. As with many other conditions in pregnancy, medical therapy with pharmaceutical agents is a concern, as the potential teratogenicity of medications is not well known. Although prevalence numbers are high, many patients have mild and infrequent symptoms, which often respond to lifestyle and dietary modifications. The exact mechanism and pathogenesis of GERD associated with pregnancy is likely multifactorial. Treatment strategies for patients not responding to conservative therapies include a step-up approach initially starting with antacids and alginates, and progressing to histamine H(2) receptor antagonists followed by proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy if indicated by symptoms. Although PPI therapy is the most effective treatment available for GERD, the data related to the safety for use during pregnancy and postpartum breastfeeding are mostly obtained from cohort analysis. Given the significant adverse impact of GERD on quality of life and functionality, the use of this class of medications should not be overly restricted based solely on the pregnancy. Based on the studies presented, exposure to PPI therapy during pregnancy seems to predispose the fetus to minimal risk and, overall, these medications should be discussed with the primary physician if symptomatically necessary in the pregnant patient. This evidence-based review will address the management and safety of PPI therapy during pregnancy and lactation, and briefly review the pathogenesis, clinical presentation and diagnosis of GERD in this population.

Are proton pump inhibitors safe during pregnancy and lactation? Evidence to date

Symptoms of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD or GERD) are estimated to occur in 30-50% of pregnancies, with the incidence approaching 80% in some populations. As with many other conditions in pregnancy, medical therapy with pharmaceutical agents is a concern, as the potential teratogenicity of medications is not well known. Although prevalence numbers are high, many patients have mild and infrequent symptoms, which often respond to lifestyle and dietary modifications. The exact mechanism and pathogenesis of GERD associated with pregnancy is likely multifactorial. Treatment strategies for patients not responding to conservative therapies include a step-up approach initially starting with antacids and alginates, and progressing to histamine H(2) receptor antagonists followed by proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy if indicated by symptoms. Although PPI therapy is the most effective treatment available for GERD, the data related to the safety for use during pregnancy and postpartum breastfeeding are mostly obtained from cohort analysis. Given the significant adverse impact of GERD on quality of life and functionality, the use of this class of medications should not be overly restricted based solely on the pregnancy. Based on the studies presented, exposure to PPI therapy during pregnancy seems to predispose the fetus to minimal risk and, overall, these medications should be discussed with the primary physician if symptomatically necessary in the pregnant patient. This evidence-based review will address the management and safety of PPI therapy during pregnancy and lactation, and briefly review the pathogenesis, clinical presentation and diagnosis of GERD in this population.

Medications used to treat nausea and vomiting of pregnancy and the risk of selected birth defects

BACKGROUND

Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP) occurs in up to 80% of pregnant women, but its association with birth outcomes is not clear. Several medications are used for the treatment of NVP; however, data are limited on their possible associations with birth defects.

METHODS

Using data from the National Birth Defects Prevention Study (NBDPS)-a multi-site, population-based, case-control study-we examined whether NVP or its treatment was associated with the most common noncardiac defects in the NBDPS (nonsyndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate [CL/P], cleft palate alone [CP], neural tube defects, and hypospadias) compared with randomly selected nonmalformed live births.

RESULTS

Among the 4524 cases and 5859 controls included in this study, 67.1% reported first-trimester NVP, and 15.4% of them reported using at least one agent for NVP. Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy was not associated with CP or neural tube defects, but modest risk reductions were observed for CL/P (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 0.87; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.77-0.98) and hypospadias (aOR = 0.84; 95% CI, 0.72-0.98). Regarding treatments for NVP in the first trimester, the following adjusted associations were observed with an increased risk: proton pump inhibitors and hypospadias (aOR = 4.36; 95% CI, 1.21-15.81), steroids and hypospadias (aOR = 2.87; 95% CI, 1.03-7.97), and ondansetron and CP (aOR = 2.37; 95% CI, 1.18-4.76), whereas antacids were associated with a reduced risk for CL/P (aOR = 0.58; 95% CI, 0.38-0.89).

CONCLUSIONS

NVP was not observed to be associated with an increased risk of birth defects; however, possible risks related to three treatments (i.e., proton pump inhibitors, steroids and ondansetron), which could be chance findings, warrant further investigation.

Adverse effects of long-term proton pump inhibitor therapy

Proton pump inhibitors have an excellent safety profile and have become one of the most commonly prescribed class of drugs in primary and specialty care. Long-term, sometimes lifetime, use is becoming increasingly common, often without appropriate indications. This paper is a detailed review of the current evidence on this important topic, focusing on the potential adverse effects of long-term proton pump inhibitor use that have generated the greatest concern: B12 deficiency; iron deficiency; hypomagnesemia; increased susceptibility to pneumonia, enteric infections, and fractures; hypergastrinemia and cancer; drug interactions; and birth defects. We explain the pathophysiological mechanisms that may underlie each of these relationships, review the existing evidence, and discuss implications for clinical management. The benefits of proton pump inhibitor use outweigh its risks in most patients. Elderly, malnourished, immune-compromised, chronically ill, and osteoporotic patients theoretically could be at increased risk from long-term therapy.

Peptic ulcer disease with related drug treatment in pregnant women and congenital abnormalities in their offspring

Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is a common disease which can also occur in pregnant women. However, the possible association of PUD and related drug treatments in pregnant women with the risk of structural birth defects (i.e. congenital abnormalities [CA]) in their offspring has not been estimated in controlled population-based epidemiological studies. Thus, the prevalence of PUD in pregnant women who later delivered babies (cases) with different CA and in pregnant women who delivered newborns without CA (controls) was compared in the Hungarian Case-Control Surveillance of Congenital Abnormalities. Controls were matched to cases. Of 22,843 cases with congenital abnormalities, 182 (0.80%) had mothers with reported/recorded PUD, while of 38,151 controls, 261 (0.68%) were born to mothers with reported/recorded PUD. However, PUD(?) based on maternal information and/or unspecified diagnostic criteria, and PUD(!) based on endoscopic diagnosis showed different variables of mothers and newborn infants. Thus, finally, 20 case mothers and 58 control mothers with PUD(!) and related drugs were evaluated in detail. There was no higher risk for total CA group in the offspring of mothers with PUD during pregnancy (adjusted OR with 95% CI: 0.6, 0.3-0.9). Specific CA groups in cases were also assessed versus controls, but specified CA had no higher risk in the offspring of pregnant women with PUD and related drug treatments. In conclusion, a higher rate of CA was not found in the offspring of mothers with PUD.

Managing pregnancy in inflammatory rheumatological diseases

Historically, pregnancy in women with many inflammatory rheumatic diseases was not considered safe and was discouraged. Combined care allows these pregnancies to be managed optimally, with the majority of outcomes being favorable. Disease activity at the time of conception and anti-phospholipid antibodies are responsible for most complications. Disease flares, pre-eclampsia, and thrombosis are the main maternal complications, whereas fetal loss and intrauterine growth restriction are the main fetal complications. Antirheumatic drugs used during pregnancy and lactation to control disease activity are corticosteroids, hydroxychloroquine, sulphasalzine, and azathioprine. Vaginal delivery is possible in most circumstances, with cesarean section being reserved for complications.

Use of proton-pump inhibitors in early pregnancy and the risk of birth defects

BACKGROUND

Symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux are common in pregnancy, but there are limited data on the risk of birth defects associated with exposure to proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) in early pregnancy.

METHODS

We conducted a cohort study to assess the association between exposure to PPIs during pregnancy and the risk of major birth defects among all infants born alive in Denmark between January 1996 and September 2008. We linked data from nationwide registries, including individual-level information on exposure to PPIs (prescriptions), birth defects, and potential confounders. Major birth defects, diagnosed within the first year of life, were categorized according to the standardized classification scheme of the European surveillance of congenital anomalies (EUROCAT). Our primary analyses assessed the use of PPIs from 4 weeks before conception through 12 weeks of gestation and from 0 through 12 weeks of gestation (first trimester).

RESULTS

Among 840,968 live births, 5082 involved exposure to PPIs between 4 weeks before conception and the end of the first trimester of pregnancy. There were 174 major birth defects in infants whose mothers had been exposed to PPIs during this period (3.4%), as compared with 21,811 in the group whose mothers had not been exposed (2.6%) (adjusted prevalence odds ratio, 1.23; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.05 to 1.44). In analyses limited to exposure during the first trimester, there were 118 major birth defects among 3651 infants exposed to PPIs (3.2%), and the adjusted prevalence odds ratio was 1.10 (95% CI, 0.91 to 1.34). The risk of birth defects was not significantly increased in secondary analyses of exposure to individual PPIs during the first trimester or in analyses limited to the offspring of women who had filled PPI prescriptions and received enough doses to have a theoretical chance of first-trimester exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

In this large cohort, exposure to PPIs during the first trimester of pregnancy was not associated with a significantly increased risk of major birth defects. (Funded by the Danish Medical Research Council and the Lundbeck Foundation.).

Safety of proton pump inhibitor exposure

Proton pump (H(+)/K(+)-adenosine triphosphatase) inhibitors (PPIs) are widely used to treat patients with acid-related disorders because they are generally perceived to be safe and effective. However, as with any pharmacologic agent, they have the potential for side effects. Many studies have examined the side effects of long-term or short-term PPI exposure. We review the mechanism of action of PPIs, focusing on recently released products that might have greater risks of adverse effects than older products because of increased potency and/or duration of action. We summarize the data available on the putative adverse effects of PPI therapy and propose guidelines for clinicians who prescribe these agents to limit the potential for adverse outcomes in users of these effective therapeutic agents.

The safety of drugs used in acid-related disorders and functional gastrointestinal disorders

Medicines are frequently used in the management of acid-related disorders and functional gastrointestinal disorders. With the exception of complicated peptic ulcer disease, these disorders are not associated with appreciable mortality. Drug treatments have consequently been held to the highest standards of safety. Some medicines have been withdrawn or restricted based on assessments and perceptions of risk. However, the risk of serious toxicity is low for most of the agents discussed in this article. Assessments are made of the safety and adverse-event profiles of certain drug classes and, where appropriate, individual medicines. For conditions with a low risk of mortality or serious morbidity, clinicians need to balance the risks of potential adverse events with the anticipated benefits of a successful outcome of specific drug treatment.

Increased risk of low birthweight, infants small for gestational age, and preterm delivery for women with peptic ulcer

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the study was to determine whether maternal peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is associated with increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes, using a nationwide population-based dataset.

STUDY DESIGN

We identified a total of 2120 women who gave birth from 2001 to 2003 with a diagnosis of PUD during pregnancy. Then 10,600 unaffected pregnant women were matched with cases in age and year of delivery. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed for estimation.

RESULTS

We found that PUD was independently associated with a 1.18-fold risk of low birthweight (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.01-1.30), a 1.20-fold risk of preterm delivery (95% CI, 1.02-1.41), and a 1.25-fold (95% CI, 1.11-1.41) higher risk of babies small for gestational age, compared with unaffected mothers, after adjusting for potential confounders. In further examining women with treated PUD, improved effects of PUD medication on the risks of adverse neonate outcomes were not identified.

CONCLUSION

We document increased risk of adverse birth outcomes for women with PUD during pregnancy.

The safety of H(2)-blockers use during pregnancy

Little data exist on the safety of H(2)-blockers during pregnancy. A computerized database of medications dispensed from 1998 to 2007 to all women registered in the "Clalit" health maintenance organization, in the Southern District of Israel, was linked with computerized databases containing maternal and infant hospitalization records from the district hospital. The following confounders were controlled for: parity, maternal age, ethnic group, maternal diabetes, smoking, and peripartum fever. Also, therapeutic pregnancy termination data were analyzed. A total of 117 960 infants were born during the study period, 84 823 of them (72%) to women registered at Clalit; 1148 of the latter were exposed to H(2)-blockers during the first trimester of pregnancy. Exposure to H(2)-blockers was not associated with an increased risk for congenital malformations (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 1.03, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.80-1.32); also, no such association was found when therapeutic pregnancy terminations were included in the analysis (adjusted OR = 1.17, 95% CI: 0.93-1.46). Exposure to H(2)-blockers was not associated with perinatal mortality, premature delivery, low birth weight, or low Apgar scores.

The safety of histamine 2 (H2) blockers in pregnancy: a meta-analysis

Heartburn and acid reflux increase the severity of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy, and may lead to more serious medical conditions. The fetal safety of histamine 2 (H2) blockers, the most common antireflux medication, during pregnancy needs to be determined. The aim herein is to determine the fetal safety of H2 blockers during pregnancy through systematic review. All original research assessing the safety of H2 blockers in pregnancy was sought. Data included congenital malformations, spontaneous abortions, preterm delivery, and small for gestational age. A random-effects model combined results. With data from 2,398 exposed and 119,892 nonexposed to H2 blockers, overall odds ratio was 1.14 [0.89, 1.45]. Further analysis revealed no increased risks for spontaneous abortions, preterm delivery, and small for gestational age with odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of 0.62 [0.36-1.05], 1.17 [0.94, 1.147], and 0.28 [0.06, 1.22], respectively. H2 blockers can be used safely in pregnancy.

The effect of Acid-reducing pharmacotherapy on the severity of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy

Background. Heartburn and acid reflux (HB/RF) are associated with increased severity of nausea and vomiting. The ability of acid-reducing drugs to reduce symptoms of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy has not been previously tested. Objective. To determine whether acid-reducing pharmacotherapy decreases the severity of NVP symptoms. Methods. We studied a cohort of women experiencing NVP, who were also experiencing HB/RF. Women were counseled to commence acid-reducing pharmacotherapy. The effectiveness of the acid-reducing medication in decreasing symptoms of both HB/RF and NVP was measured. Results. Acid-reducing drugs resulted in significant decreases in PUQE (9.6 ± 3.0 to 6.5 ± 2.5, P < .0001) and well-being scores from the initial (4.0 ± 2.0) to the follow-up interview (6.8 ± 1.6, P < .0001). After intervention with acid-reducing pharmacotherapy, a reduction in acid symptoms correlated significantly with reduction in NVP (R² = 0.72, P < .001). Conclusion. This is the first study to demonstrate that management of HB/RF can reduce the severity of NVP.

The safety of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) in pregnancy: a meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

Heartburn and acid reflux are common medical disorders in pregnancy and can result in serious discomfort and complications. Furthermore, some pregnant women also experience more severe gastrointestinal conditions, such as Helicobacter pylori infections, peptic ulcers, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. To allow the use of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) in pregnancy, the fetal safety of this drug class must be established. The aim of this study is to determine the fetal safety of PPIs during early pregnancy through systematic literature review.

METHODS

All original research assessing the safety of PPIs in pregnancy was sought from inception to July 2008. Two independent reviewers identified articles, compared results, and settled differences through consensus. The Downs-Black scale was used to assess quality. Data assessed included congenital malformations, spontaneous abortions, and preterm delivery. A random effects meta-analysis combined the results from included studies.

RESULTS

Of the 60 articles identified, 7 met our inclusion criteria. Using data from 134,940 patients, including 1,530 exposed and 133,410 not exposed to PPIs, the overall odds ratio (OR) for major malformations was 1.12 (95% confidence interval, CI: 0.86-1.45). Further analysis revealed no increased risk for spontaneous abortions (OR=1.29, 95% CI: 0.84-1.97); similarly, there was no increased risk for preterm delivery (OR=1.13, 95% CI: 0.96-1.33). In the secondary analysis of 1,341 exposed and 120,137 not exposed to omeprazole alone, the OR and 95% CI for major malformations were 1.17 and 0.90-1.53, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of these results, PPIs are not associated with an increased risk for major congenital birth defects, spontaneous abortions, or preterm delivery. The narrow range of 95% CIs is further reassuring, suggesting that PPIs can be safely used in pregnancy.

Interventions for heartburn in pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Heartburn is a common symptom in pregnancy affecting up to 80% of women in the third trimester. The reasons for the increase in symptoms in pregnancy are not well understood, but the effects of pregnancy hormones on the lower oesophageal sphincter and gastric clearance are thought to play a part. A range of interventions have been used to relieve symptoms including advice on diet and lifestyle, antacids, antihistamines, and proton pump inhibitors. The safety and effectiveness of these interventions to relieve heartburn in pregnancy have not been established.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effect of interventions to relieve heartburn in pregnancy.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group's Trials Register (April 2008).

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials evaluating interventions to relieve heartburn.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We assessed eligibility for inclusion and extracted data independently.

MAIN RESULTS

Three studies were eligible for inclusion, together they included a total of 286 women. All three were placebo controlled trials, each examining a different medication to relieve heartburn (intramuscular prostigmine, an antacid preparation and an antacid plus ranitidine). All three produced positive findings in favour of the intervention groups. It was not possible to pool findings from studies to produce an overall treatment effect.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There was little information to draw conclusions on the overall effectiveness of interventions to relieve heartburn in pregnancy.

Safety profile of esomeprazole: results of a prescription-event monitoring study of 11 595 patients in England

OBJECTIVE

Esomeprazole, the S-isomer of omeprazole, was launched in the UK in September 2000. The first proton pump inhibitor, omeprazole, has been marketed in the UK for over 10 years. However, the adverse event database of newly marketed drugs is limited, and it is only after widespread clinical use that the adverse effect profile of a drug is ascertained more comprehensively. This study aims to monitor the safety of esomeprazole prescribed in the primary care setting in England using prescription-event monitoring (PEM).

METHODS

A postmarketing surveillance study using the observational cohort technique of PEM. Patients were identified from dispensed prescriptions for esomeprazole issued by general practitioners between September 2000 and April 2001. Questionnaires ('green forms') requesting clinical event data on these patients were sent to prescribers approximately 6 months after the date of the first dispensed prescription for each individual patient. Incidence densities (IDs), expressed as the number of first reports of an event/1000 patient-months of exposure (PME), were calculated. Significant differences between IDs for events reported in the first month (ID1) and the following 5 months (ID2-6) of exposure were regarded as potential signals. Other methods for signal detection such as medical evaluation of selected events and evaluation of reasons for stopping were also applied.

RESULTS

Green forms containing clinically useful information for 11 595 patients (median age 56 years; 53.2% female) were received. Diarrhoea was the event with the highest ID1 in month 1 (8.0 per 1000 patient months of exposure). Adverse events that occurred significantly more often in the first month of treatment with esomeprazole compared with months 2-6 included diarrhoea, nausea/vomiting, abdominal pain, dyspepsia, headache/migraine, intolerance, malaise/lassitude, pruritus, unspecified adverse effects and abnormal sensation.

CONCLUSIONS

The safety profile of esomeprazole was consistent with the prescribing information and experience reported in the literature.

Validation of neural tube defects in the full featured--general practice research database

BACKGROUND

The General Practice Research Database (GPRD) has been used to identify associations between pregnancy medication exposures and birth defects, but experts have argued that databases such as this one cannot provide detailed information for the valid identification of complicated congenital anomalies. Our objective was to determine if the GPRD could be used to identify cases of neural tube defects (NTDs).

METHODS

First, we created algorithms for anencephaly, encephalocele, meningocele, and spina bifida and used them to identify potential cases. We used the algorithms to identify 217 potential NTD cases in either a child's or a mother's record. We validated cases by querying general practitioners (GPs) via questionnaire. Where cases of NTD were identified in the mother's record, in addition to confirming the diagnosis, we asked the GPs if the diagnosis was for the mother or that of her fetus or offspring.

RESULTS

Two hundred seventeen cases were identified, and 165 GP questionnaires were returned. We validated an NTD diagnosis for 117 cases, giving our algorithms a positive predictive value (PPV) of 0.71. The PPVs varied by NTD type: 0.81 for anencephaly, 0.83 for cephalocele, 0.64 for meningocele, and 0.47 for spina bifida.

CONCLUSIONS

Our identification algorithm was useful in identifying three of the four types of NTDs studied. Additional information is necessary to accurately identify cases of spina bifida.

The utility of the general practice research database to examine selected congenital heart defects: a validation study

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this research was (1) to validate that ventricular septal defect (VSD), tetralogy of Fallot (TOF), and coarctation of the aorta (COA) can be studied in the UK General practice research database (GPRD) and (2) to understand which of the available GPRD components (computerized medical records, questionnaires, and maternal/infant free text) provide maximal information about these heart defects.

METHODS

Using a practitioner questionnaire, the positive predictive value (PPV) of the computerized medical record for VSD, TOF, and COA were determined. Both infant and maternal free text was examined. Concordance between the infant free text information and questionnaires was calculated. The proportion of infant information captured in the maternal free text was determined.

RESULTS

A 93% response rate was achieved. Based on questionnaire responses, an overall PPV of 93.5% was achieved (VSD = 95%, TOF = 90%, COA = 100%). Approximately half of the records contained infant free text information including information on the type and size of VSD, echocardiogram findings, and surgery. Concordance between the infant's free text and questionnaire information occurred in most of the cases (92-100%). The proportion of infant information in the maternal free text was low (4-19%).

CONCLUSION

The GPRD computerized medical records are sufficient to assess VSD, TOF, and COA. This study confirms that maternal free text provides a low yield of limited information pertaining to the infants' defect, while the infant free text may provide an additional information usually obtainable from practitioner questionnaires. The information provided by an infant free text may limit the need for practitioner questionnaire validation.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease in pregnancy

Gastroesophageal reflux disease during pregnancy is common. Altered structure and function of the normal physiological barriers to reflux of gastric contents into the oesophagus explain the high incidence of this problem in pregnant women. For the majority of patients, life-style modifications are helpful, but are not sufficient to control symptoms and medication is required. The optimum management of reflux in pregnant patients requires special attention and expertise, since the safety of the mother, foetus and neonate remain the primary focus. Gastroenterologists and obstetricians should work together to optimise treatment. Typically, one utilises a step-up program that starts with life-style modifications and antacids. If those methods fail, histamine-2 receptor antagonists and proton pump inhibitors are tried. Rarely, promotility agents are used. Initiation of these medications must be undertaken after a careful discussion of risks and benefits with patients. In patients without a prior history of reflux, symptoms usually abate after delivery.

Gastrointestinal medications in pregnancy

Management of the pregnant patient presents unique challenges to the treating physician. Current Food and Drug Administration classifications do not necessarily reflect clinical experience or recent literature. Ideally, one should use the lowest-risk drug possible, with attention to the appropriate level of efficacy for the patient's condition, the stage of pregnancy and dose adjustment. Every treatment decision should be fully discussed with the patient and a multidisciplinary team that should include the obstetrician and, if appropriate, the paediatrician. This review will cover the medications commonly used to treat gastrointestinal disease. The majority of medications can be categorised as 'low risk' or 'should be avoided'. The following medications should never be used during pregnancy due to the clear risk of teratogenicity or adverse events: bismuth, castor oil, sodium bicarbonate, methotrexate, ribavirin, doxycycline, tetracycline, and thalidomide.

The safety of pharmacological therapies for gastrointestinal conditions encountered during pregnancy

Properly assessing the safety of pharmacological therapies for gastrointestinal conditions encountered during pregnancy is a challenge on account of both the often limited controlled data available and the potentially confounding effect of the underlying disorders requiring treatment on fetal outcomes. Here, the available data with regard to gastrointestinal disorders specific to pregnancy, those that may be precipitated or exacerbated by pregnancy and those that may be pre-existing or arise concurrently during pregnancy are reviewed.

American gastroenterological association institute technical review on the use of gastrointestinal medications in pregnancy

This literature review and the recommendations therein were prepared for the American Gastroenterological Association Institute Clinical Practice and Economics Committee. The paper was approved by the Committee on February 22, 2006 and by the AGA Institute Governing Board on April 20, 2006.

[A case of postoperative pulmonary metastasis of breast cancer treated with docetaxel and cyclophosphamide therapy]

A 55-year-old woman underwent a partial breast resection in our hospital for breast cancer in May 2002. For adjuvant therapy, she received cyclophosphamide, pirarubicin and 5-FU infusion a total of 6 times, and anastrozole. Then, in May of 2004, an abnormal shadow was detected on her of chest X-ray. After CT scan we diagnosed multiple pulmonary metastasis of breast cancer. We used combination therapy of docetaxel 60 mg/m(2) and cyclophosphamide 500 mg/m(2). After 9 months, pulmonary metastasis disappeared on her CT scan. During chemotherapy, she showed no major side effect.

Review article: the management of heartburn in pregnancy

Heartburn is a normal consequence of pregnancy. The predominant aetiology is a decrease in lower oesophageal sphincter pressure caused by female sex hormones, especially progesterone. Serious reflux complications during pregnancy are rare; hence upper endoscopy and other diagnostic tests are infrequently needed. Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease during pregnancy should be managed with a step-up algorithm beginning with lifestyle modifications and dietary changes. Antacids or sucralfate are considered the first-line drug therapy. If symptoms persist, any of the histamine2-receptor antagonists can be used. Proton pump inhibitors are reserved for women with intractable symptoms or complicated reflux disease. All but omeprazole are FDA category B drugs during pregnancy. Most drugs are excreted in breast milk. Of systemic agents, only the histamine2-receptor antagonists, with the exception of nizatidine, are safe to use during lactation.

The general practice research database: role in pharmacovigilance

The General Practice Research Database (GPRD) is the world's largest computerised database of anonymised longitudinal clinical records from primary care. The database already has an international reputation in the field of drug safety signal evaluation where the results of GPRD-based pharmacoepidemiological studies have been used to inform regulatory pharmacovigilance decision making. The characteristics and richness of the data are such that the GPRD is likely to prove a key data resource for the proactive pharmacovigilance anticipated in risk management and pharmacovigilance plans. An update of recent developments to the database and new data available from it -- including spontaneously recorded suspected adverse drug reactions -- is presented in the article, with a description of how the data can be used to support a variety of pharmacovigilance applications. The possibility of using the GPRD in signal detection and assessment of the impact of pharmacovigilance activities in the future is also discussed.

The safety of proton pump inhibitors in pregnancy: a multicentre prospective controlled study

BACKGROUND

Proton pump inhibitors are used to treat gastro-oesophageal reflux and peptic ulcers. Gastro-oesophageal reflux is a common condition in pregnancy. Human pregnancy experience with lansoprazole or pantoprazole is very limited. More data exist on the safety of omeprazole in pregnancy.

AIM

To assess the safety of proton pump inhibitors in pregnancy.

METHODS

The rate of major anomalies was compared between pregnant women exposed to omeprazole, lanzoprazole, or pantoprazole and a control group counselled for non-teratogens. The study design is a multicentre (n = 8), prospective, controlled study of the European Network of Teratology Information Services.

RESULTS

We followed up 295 pregnancies exposed to omeprazole [233 in the first trimester (T1)], 62 to lansoprazole (55 in T1) and 53 to pantoprazole (47 in T1), and compared pregnancy outcome to that of 868 European Network of Teratology Information Services controls. The rate of major congenital anomalies did not differ between the exposed and control groups [omeprazole nine of 249 (3.6%), lansoprazole two of 51 (3.9%) and pantoprazole one of 48 (2.1%) vs. controls 30 of 792 = 3.8%]. No differences were found when exposure was limited to the first trimester after exclusion of genetic, cytogenetic or infectious anomalies.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that proton pump inhibitors do not represent a major teratogenic risk in humans.

The role of proton pump inhibitors in the treatment of heartburn during pregnancy

PURPOSE

To review the problem of heartburn in gravid women, discuss the present treatment options, and examine the use of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) as one of the treatment options for moderate to severe heartburn.

DATA SOURCES

Extensive review of worldwide scientific literature on the use and safety of PPIs during pregnancy and heartburn during pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

Preliminary information indicates that use of PPIs during pregnancy is safe for both the fetus and the woman and that obstetrical practitioners are using them more frequently. Randomized controlled trials are needed to examine the efficacy of PPIs to treat heartburn during pregnancy, especially as they are compared to histamine(2) receptor antagonists.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Heartburn during pregnancy is at risk for being undertreated, given that delivery is the cure. As PPIs are more widely used by women, questions will arise regarding their use in the first trimester as well as throughout pregnancy. This article brings nurse practitioners up to date on the safety of PPIs through the literature review and suggests various treatment options that can be discussed with the patient.

Herbal agents and over-the-counter medications in pregnancy

Exposures to over-the-counter and herbal products are frequent in pregnant women. Limited information exists on the effects of many of these agents during pregnancy; it is not safe to assume that because these products are available without a prescription that they are without danger to the pregnant woman and her fetus. The basic principles utilized in deciding whether to employ prescription medications such as dose, embryological timing and potential toxic fetal effects also apply to herbal medications and over-the-counter agents. Conventional reasoning indicates that maternal exposure to poorly studied medications should be limited; therefore, many of these agents should be used sparingly or not at all by pregnant women. This chapter includes a review of selected herbal and over-the-counter agents, including those which are considered to be acceptable for use in pregnancy.

Prescription drugs during pregnancy and lactation--a Finnish register-based study

OBJECTIVE

To examine the use of prescription drugs in Finnish women before and during pregnancy and lactation.

METHODS

A register-based study linking four nation-wide registers in Finland: the Maternal Grants Register, the Drug Prescription Register, and the Special Refund Register (all maintained by the Social Insurance Institution in Finland; KELA), and the Finnish Population Register. The study included all women applying for maternity support (maternal grants) during the year 1999, and non-pregnant control women matched by age and hospital district. Data collection included the number and type of prescription drugs purchased by the two cohorts during preconception (3 months before pregnancy), each trimester, and lactation.

RESULTS

Of the 43,470 pregnant women, 46.2% purchased at least one drug and 12.7% three or more different drugs during pregnancy. Corresponding proportions for the control cohort were 55.2% (OR 0.7, 95% CI 0.6-0.7) and 23.0% (OR 0.5, 95% CI 0.5-0.5). The drugs most frequently purchased during pregnancy were systemic antibiotics (24.1% of pregnant women vs 27.3% controls; OR 0.8, 95% CI 0.8-0.9) and gynaecological anti-infective agents (8.3% vs 1.5%; OR 5.5, 95% CI 5.5-6.5). For pregnant women, purchases of most drug groups had already declined during the first trimester, but no reduction was apparent in drugs for chronic illnesses (epilepsy, asthma, diabetes).

CONCLUSIONS

Although drugs were purchased abundantly during pregnancy, a significant decline occurred for most drug groups. The medication pattern for chronic illnesses remained unchanged. The purchase of several different drugs was relatively common and raises concerns.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease during pregnancy

Approximately two thirds of pregnant patients develop heartburn. The origin is multifactorial, but the predominant factor is a decrease in LES pressure caused by female sex hormones, especially progesterone. Mechanical factors play a small role. Serious reflux complications during pregnancy are rare; therefore EGD and other diagnostic tests are infrequently needed. Symptomatic GERD during pregnancy should be managed with a step-up algorithm beginning with lifestyle modifications and dietary changes. Antacids or sucralfate are considered the first-line medical therapy. If symptoms persist, H2RAs should be used. Ranitidine is probably preferred because of its documented efficacy and safety profile in pregnancy, even in the first trimester. Proton-pump inhibitors are reserved for the woman with intractable symptoms or complicated reflux disease. Lansoprazole may be the preferred PPI because of its safety profile in animals and case reports of safety in human pregnancies.